JACKFRUIT Fruit Facts
Origin: The jackfruit is believed indigenous to the rain forests of the Western Ghats of India. It spread early on to other parts of India, southeast Asia, the East Indies and ultimately the Philippines. It is often planted in central and eastern Africa and is fairly popular in Brazil and Surinam.
Adaptation: Jackfruit is adapted to humid tropical and near-tropical climates. Mature trees have survived temperatures of about 27° F in southern Florida, but these were frozen to large limbs. Young trees are likely to be killed at temperatures below 32° F. Unlike its relative, the breadfruit, the jackfruit is not injured by cool weather several degrees above freezing. There are only a dozen or so bearing jackfruit trees today in southern Florida, and these are valued mainly as curiosities. There are also several trees planted in the Asian exhibit at the San Diego Zoo. What they will do or how high they will grow remains a question. The tree is too large to make a suitable container-grown plant.
DESCRIPTION
Growth Habit: The jackfruit tree is handsome and stately. In the tropics it grows to an enormous size, like a large eastern oak. In California it is very doubtful that it would ever approach this size. All parts contain a sticky, white latex.
Foliage: The leaves are oblong, oval, or elliptic in form, 4 to 6 inches in length, leathery, glossy, and deep green in color. Juvenile leaves are lobed.
Flowers: Male and female flowers are borne in separate flower-heads. Male flower-heads are on new wood among the leaves or above the female. They are swollen, oblong, from an inch to four inches long and up to an inch wide at the widest part. They are pale green at first, then darken. When mature the head is covered with yellow pollen that falls rapidly after flowering. The female heads appear on short, stout twigs that emerge from the trunk and large branches, or even from the soil-covered base of very old trees. They look like the male heads but without pollen, and soon begins to swell. The stalks of both male and female flower-heads are encircled by a small green ring.
Fruit: Jackfruit is the largest tree-borne fruit in the world, reaching 80 pounds in weight and up to 36 inches long and 20 inches in diameter. The exterior of the compound fruit is green or yellow when ripe. The interior consists of large edible bulbs of yellow, banana-flavored flesh that encloses a smooth, oval, light-brown seed. The seed is 3/4 to 1-1/2 inches long and 1/2 to 3/4 inches thick and is white and crisp within. There may be 100 or up to 500 seeds in a single fruit, which are viable for no more than three or four days. When fully ripe, the unopened jackfruit emits a strong disagreeable odor, resembling that of decayed onions, while the pulp of the opened fruit smells of pineapple and banana.
There are two main varieties. In one, the fruits have small, fibrous, soft, mushy, but very sweet carpels with a texture somewhat akin to a raw oysters. The other variety is crisp and almost crunchy though not quite as sweet. This form is the more important commercially and is more palatable to western tastes.
CULTURE
Location: The jackfruit tree should have a well-drained, frost-free location that is sunny and warm.
Soil: The jackfruit flourishes in rich, deep soil of medium or open texture. Planting on top of an old compost heap would be ideal. The faster one can force a tropical plant to grow, the better the chance of keeping it alive. The tree needs the best drainage and cannot tolerate "wet feet".
Irrigation: The tree will not tolerate drought. Water frequently during warm months and warm periods in cooler months. Less water is necessary during colder weather.
Fertilization: The jackfruit's requirements are not known, but frequent, weak solutions of all-purpose fertilizer will speed the plant's growth without causing burn. In the regions where it is commonly grown, it succeeds without much care from man, the sole necessity being abundant moisture.
Frost protection: Although mature jackfruit trees will take several degrees of frost, it is prudent to provide young plants with overhead protection if possible and plant them on the south side of a wall or building. Small plants should be given complete protection with a covering on cold nights and even a light bulb if possible.
Propagation:Propagation is usually by seeds, which can be kept no longer than a month before planting. Germination requires 3 to 8 weeks. The seedlings should be moved when no more than 4 leaves have appeared. A more advanced seedling, with its long and delicate tap root is very difficult to transplant successfully. Cutting-grown plants and grafted seedlings are possible. Air-layering is common in India.
Pruning: Little or no pruning is required other than to remove any dead branches from the interior of the tree, so that sufficient light is obtained for the developing fruit.
Pests and diseases: A variety of pests and diseases afflict the jackfruit tree and fruit regions where it is commonly grown. In California the white fly is a minor pest.
Harvest: Jackfruits mature 3 to 8 months from flowering. When mature, there is usually a change of fruit color from light green to yellow-brown. Spines, closely spaced, yield to moderate pressure, and there is a dull, hollow sound when the fruit is tapped. After ripening, they turn brown and deteriorate rather quickly. Cold storage trials indicate that ripe fruits can be kept for 3 to 6 weeks at 52° to 55° F and relative humidity of 85% to 95%. Immature fruit is boiled, fried, or roasted. Chunks are cooked in lightly salted water until tender and then served. The only handicap is copious gummy latex which accumulates on utensils and hands unless they are first rubbed with cooking oil. The seeds can also be boiled or roasted and eaten similar to chestnuts. In Southeast Asia dried slices of unripe jackfruit are sold in the markets. The ripe bulbs, fermented and then distilled, produce a potent liquor.
CULTIVARS
In Malaysia and India there are named types of fruit. One that has caused a lot of interest is Singapore, or Ceylon, a remarkable yearly bearer producing fruit in 18 months to 2-1/2 years from transplanting. The fruit is of medium size with small, fibrous carpels which are very sweet. It was introduced into India from Ceylon and planted extensively in 1949. Other excellent varieties are Safeda, Khaja, Bhusila, Bhadaiyan and Handia. In Australia, some of the varieties are: Galaxy, Fitzroy, Nahen, Cheenax, Kapa, Mutton, and Varikkha. None of these appear to be available in the US at this time.
Sunday, May 30, 2010
A LETTER TO BILL GATES (JOKE)
Dear Mr. Bill Gates,
We have bought a computer for our home and we have found some problems, which I want to bring to your notice.
1. There is a button 'start' but there is no 'stop' button. We request you to check this.
2. We find there is 'Run' in the menu. One of my friends clicked 'run' he ran up to Amritsar ! So, we request you to change that to 'sit', so that we can click that by sitting.
3. One doubt is whether any 're-scooter' is available in system? I find only 're-cycle', but I own a scooter at my home.
4. There is 'Find' button but it is not working properly. My wife lost the door key and we tried a lot trace the key with this ' find' button, but was unable to trace. Please rectify this problem.
5. My child learnt 'Microsoft word' now he wants to learn 'Microsoft sentence', so when you will provide that?
6. I bought computer, CPU, mouse and keyboard, but there is only one icon which shows 'MY Computer': when you will provide the remaining items?
7. It is surprising that windows says 'MY Pictures' but there is not even a single photo of mine. So when will you keep my photo in that.
8. There is 'MICROSOFT OFFICE' what about 'MICROSOFT HOME' since I use the PC at home only.
9. You provided 'My Recent Documents'. When you will provide 'My Past Documents'?
10. You provide 'My Network Places'. For God sake please do not provide 'My Secret Places'. I do not want to let my wife know where I go after my office hours.
We have bought a computer for our home and we have found some problems, which I want to bring to your notice.
1. There is a button 'start' but there is no 'stop' button. We request you to check this.
2. We find there is 'Run' in the menu. One of my friends clicked 'run' he ran up to Amritsar ! So, we request you to change that to 'sit', so that we can click that by sitting.
3. One doubt is whether any 're-scooter' is available in system? I find only 're-cycle', but I own a scooter at my home.
4. There is 'Find' button but it is not working properly. My wife lost the door key and we tried a lot trace the key with this ' find' button, but was unable to trace. Please rectify this problem.
5. My child learnt 'Microsoft word' now he wants to learn 'Microsoft sentence', so when you will provide that?
6. I bought computer, CPU, mouse and keyboard, but there is only one icon which shows 'MY Computer': when you will provide the remaining items?
7. It is surprising that windows says 'MY Pictures' but there is not even a single photo of mine. So when will you keep my photo in that.
8. There is 'MICROSOFT OFFICE' what about 'MICROSOFT HOME' since I use the PC at home only.
9. You provided 'My Recent Documents'. When you will provide 'My Past Documents'?
10. You provide 'My Network Places'. For God sake please do not provide 'My Secret Places'. I do not want to let my wife know where I go after my office hours.
Monday, May 24, 2010
SPECIAL LAWS FOR DISABILITIES : QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Q. What are the goals of the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full participation) Act, 1995?
¨ To integrate person with disabilities and provide them with opportunities for full participation in society
¨ To create a society in which disabled persons would enjoy status on par with non-disabled person
Q. Are all disabled people entitled to the benefits of the disabilities Act?
A. The general benefits of the disabilities Act are meant for all disabled persons. However the rights earmarked specially for "persons with disability" are for only those affected by any of the following disabilities, to the extent of 40% or more, as certified by a Recognised medical authority:
¨ Blindness
¨ Low-vision
¨ Leprosy-cured
¨ Hearing impairment
¨ Locomotor disability, or any form of cerebral palsy
¨ Mental retardation
¨ Mental illness
¨
Q. How does the disabilities Act set out to achieve its goals?
A. To achieve its goals, the Disabilities Act provides for the following:
¨ Education of disabled persons
¨ Employment of disabled persons
¨ Special facilities for disabled persons for use and access of public transport system, civic amenities and public buildings / places
¨ Preferential allotment to help disabled persons set up businesses and factories, build own houses, special schools and special recreation Centres.
¨ Prevention and early detection of disabilities
¨ Rehabilitation and social security of disabled persons
¨ Research and manpower development on disability issues
¨ Recognition of institutions for disabled persons
¨ Settings up of dedicated authorities at central and state levels, for "coordination", "execution" and "adjudication" with regard to implementing the Act.
Finding ways of preventing disability in the first place can save much agony. What does the act say about that?
Q. What steps must be taken by the government for prevention and early detection of occurrence of Disability?
A. Government and local authorities must:
¨ Undertake surveys, investigations and research on causes of disabilities
¨ Promote various methods of preventing disabilities
¨ Screen all the children at least once a year to identify 'at risk' cases
¨ Organise awareness campaigns and disseminate information for general hygiene, health and sanitation
¨ Take measures for pre-natal, perinatal and post-natal care of mother and child
¨ Educate the public through pre-schools, schools, primary health centres, village level workers and anganwadi workers
¨ Create awareness among the masses, through television, radio and other mass media, on the causes of disability and preventive measures
"I am well-qualified, but because of my disability no one employs me. Will the act help me find a suitable job?"
Q. What does the Disabilities Act provide for employment of disabled persons?
A. The Act provides the following to ensure employment for disabled persons:
¨ 3% vacancies on identified posts in each government establishment are reserved for disabled persons, 1% each for: (i) persons with blindness or low vision (ii) persons with hearing impairment and (iii) persons with locomotor disability or Cerebral Palsy
¨ Carry-forward of a reserved vacancy in the next recruitment year if not filled in a recruitment year. Filling up of the reserved vacancy by interchange among the three categories in the next recruitment year if it remains unfilled or when a vacancy cannot be filled by a given category of disabled persons due to the nature of the vacancy.
¨ Formulate schemes on related matters like: Training, relaxation of upper age limit, regulating the employment, health and safely measures, creation of a non-handicapping environment in work-places employing disabled persons
¨ 3% reservation for persons with disabilities in all poverty alleviation schemes
Q. How does the Act protect a disabled person from discrimination at work?
A. The Act stresses that employers must provide for a non-handicapping environment in places where persons with disabilities are employed. The Act also mandates that:
¨ A disabled person working in any government establishment cannot be denied promotion merely on the ground of his disability.
¨ Anyone employed in a government established who acquires a disability during his employment:
v Cannot be dispensed with or reduced in rank
v If, after acquiring the disability, an employee is not suitable to continue on his post, he may be shifted to a suitable post with the same pay-scale and service benefits
v Pending availability of a suitable post, a supernumerary post should be created for such a person.
Q. Does the Act provide for employment in the private sector?
A. There are no reservations mandated for the private sector. However, the Act mandates that the government must announce schemes providing incentives to employers in public and private sectors to ensure that at least 5% of the workforce comprises persons with disabilities.
Q. Does the Act promote entrepreneurship/ownership amongst disabled people?
A. Yes, the Disabilities Act provides for preferential allotment of land to disabled persons at concessional rates by the government for building their own houses, setting up of any business or factories and establishing special schools, research centres or special recreational centres.
Q. Is there any duty on the government's part to provide and promote education among disabled persons?
A. Yes, to provide education to persons with disabilities, the government must:
¨ Ensure free education for every disabled person, in an appropriate environment, till 18 years of age
¨ Promote integration of disabled students in mainstream schools
¨ Promote setting up of special schools in the government and private sectors, equip these schools with vocational training facilities and ensure that disabled students living in every part of the country have access to such schools
¨ For infrastructure and other support, announce schemes for:
v Transport facilities for disabled children or, in the alternative, financial incentives to parents/guardians to enable their disabled children to attend schools
v Removal of architectural barriers from schools, colleges or other institutions imparting vocational and professional training to make them accessible
v Supply of books, uniforms and other material to disabled children
v Grant of scholarships to disabled students
v Setting up of appropriate forums for redressal of grievances of parents regarding placement of their disabled children
v Suitable modification in the examination system for the benefit of visually impaired students, to eliminate purely mathematical questions
v Restructuring of curriculum for the benefit of all the disabled children, specifically for students with hearing impairment, allowing learning in only one language
v Amanuensis (scribes/writers) for visually impaired students
¨ To develop institutional support, set up adequate number of teachers' training institutions and assist the national institutions and assist the national institutes and other voluntary organisations to develop teachers' training programmes specialising in disabilities
¨ Make schemes in the area of non-formal education of disabled persons
¨ All government educational institutes, and those receiving aid from the government, must provide 3% reservation for persons with disabilities
"I dream of going to school like other children. can the disabilities act make this dream come true for me?"
But I can't travel in any public transport or access most buildings. What about this?
Q. What should the government do to prevent discrimination against disabled persons in using modes of transport?
A. Government establishments related to the transport sector must:
¨ Adapt rail compartments, buses, vessels and aircraft for easy access and use by disabled persons
¨ Adapt toilets in rail compartments, ships and other vessels, aircraft and waiting rooms for the convenience of wheelchair users
Q. What should the government do to protect discrimination in use of roads?
A. The government must provide for:
¨ Installation of auditory traffic signals, engraving on the surface of zebra crossings and on the edges of railway platforms to assist visually impaired persons
¨ Slopes in pavements for easy access of wheelchair users
¨ Devising appropriate symbols of disability
¨ Installation of warning signals at appropriate places
Q. What should the government do to enable disabled persons to access public buildings?
A. The government must provide the following in public buildings:
¨ Ramps in all public buildings
¨ Adapted toilets for wheelchair users
¨ Braille symbols and auditory signals in lifts
¨ Take such steps to ensure a barrier-free environment in public places, work places, public utilities, schools and other institutions
Q. What should the government do for providing 'social security' and 'rehabilitation' of disabled persons?
A. The government must:
¨ Frame schemes for payment of 'unemployment allowance' to disabled persons registered with the Special Employment Exchange for more than two years but still unemployed
¨ Issue notification framing 'insurance scheme' or 'security scheme' for its employees with disabilities
¨ Undertake 'rehabilitation' of all disabled persons to enable them to reach and maintain optimal physical, sensory, intellectual, psychiatric or social functional levels, including providing aids and appliances
Who implements the act? Is there any special office for redressal of our grievances?
Q. Who is the implementing authority under the Disabilities Act?
A. The Disabilities Act provides for the following authorities:
¨ Chief Commissioner (at the Central level) and State Commissioners
¨ Central and State Coordination Committees
¨ Central and State Executive Committees
Q. What are the powers of Chief Commissioner/State Commissioners?
A. The Chief Commissioner may, on his own, or on the application of any aggrieved person, or otherwise, look into complaints with respect to:
v Deprivation of rights of disabled persons
v Non-implementation of laws, rules, bye-laws, regulations, executive orders, guidelines or instructions framed for welfare and protection of rights of disabled persons
¨ The Chief Commissioner may thereafter take up the matter with the appropriate authorities
¨ The Chief Commissioner shall also:
v Coordinate the work of the State Commissioners
v Monitor the utilisation of funds disbursed by the Central Government
v Safeguard the rights and facilities available to disabled persons
v Submit reports to the Central Government on the implementation of the Act at regular intervals
¨ The State Commissioner have the same power/functions at the State level
Q. What are the functions assigned to the Coordination Committees?
A. The Central and State Coordination Committees-at Central and State levels respectively-must review and coordinate the activities of all government departments and NGOs and advise the respective government on formulation of disability-related policies, programmes, legislation and projects. They must also monitor and evaluate the impact of policies and programmes designed for achieving equality and full participation of disabled people and such other functions as may be prescribed by the government.
Q. What are the functions assigned to the Executive Committees?
A. The Central and State Executive Committees have been - at Central and State levels, respectively - must carry out the decisions of he Central Coordination Committee and perform other functions which may be delegated to it by the Coordination Committee.
What can I do?
Q. What must a disabled person do to enforce the rights created under the Disabilities Act?
A. A disabled person can make representations to the concerned government and/or the concerned establishment, if there is deprivation or violation of any right provided under the Disabilities Act. If there is no response, or if the response is negative/inadequate, one can approach the concerned Commissioner of Disabilities. Alternatively, one can file a Writ Petition under Article 226 of the Constitution of India, in the concerned High Court. If there is any violation of a Constitutional right also, of national importance, a Writ Petition can be filed under Article 32 of the Constitution, before the Supreme Court.
Q. What can be done against violations of the rights under the Disabilities Act, that affect an entire group of disabled people?
A. A disabled individual or a group of disabled individuals or even a concerned NGO, may, on behalf of the affected group or class, initiate Public Interest Litigations (PILs) in the High Court, or, where it also amounts to violation of Constitutional rights of national importance, in the Supreme Court. For instance, PILs may be initiated on issues regarding education and/or employment of the disabled, use and access in public transport system, civic amenities, public buildings, or the like, which affect and benefit more than one disabled person.
¨ To integrate person with disabilities and provide them with opportunities for full participation in society
¨ To create a society in which disabled persons would enjoy status on par with non-disabled person
Q. Are all disabled people entitled to the benefits of the disabilities Act?
A. The general benefits of the disabilities Act are meant for all disabled persons. However the rights earmarked specially for "persons with disability" are for only those affected by any of the following disabilities, to the extent of 40% or more, as certified by a Recognised medical authority:
¨ Blindness
¨ Low-vision
¨ Leprosy-cured
¨ Hearing impairment
¨ Locomotor disability, or any form of cerebral palsy
¨ Mental retardation
¨ Mental illness
¨
Q. How does the disabilities Act set out to achieve its goals?
A. To achieve its goals, the Disabilities Act provides for the following:
¨ Education of disabled persons
¨ Employment of disabled persons
¨ Special facilities for disabled persons for use and access of public transport system, civic amenities and public buildings / places
¨ Preferential allotment to help disabled persons set up businesses and factories, build own houses, special schools and special recreation Centres.
¨ Prevention and early detection of disabilities
¨ Rehabilitation and social security of disabled persons
¨ Research and manpower development on disability issues
¨ Recognition of institutions for disabled persons
¨ Settings up of dedicated authorities at central and state levels, for "coordination", "execution" and "adjudication" with regard to implementing the Act.
Finding ways of preventing disability in the first place can save much agony. What does the act say about that?
Q. What steps must be taken by the government for prevention and early detection of occurrence of Disability?
A. Government and local authorities must:
¨ Undertake surveys, investigations and research on causes of disabilities
¨ Promote various methods of preventing disabilities
¨ Screen all the children at least once a year to identify 'at risk' cases
¨ Organise awareness campaigns and disseminate information for general hygiene, health and sanitation
¨ Take measures for pre-natal, perinatal and post-natal care of mother and child
¨ Educate the public through pre-schools, schools, primary health centres, village level workers and anganwadi workers
¨ Create awareness among the masses, through television, radio and other mass media, on the causes of disability and preventive measures
"I am well-qualified, but because of my disability no one employs me. Will the act help me find a suitable job?"
Q. What does the Disabilities Act provide for employment of disabled persons?
A. The Act provides the following to ensure employment for disabled persons:
¨ 3% vacancies on identified posts in each government establishment are reserved for disabled persons, 1% each for: (i) persons with blindness or low vision (ii) persons with hearing impairment and (iii) persons with locomotor disability or Cerebral Palsy
¨ Carry-forward of a reserved vacancy in the next recruitment year if not filled in a recruitment year. Filling up of the reserved vacancy by interchange among the three categories in the next recruitment year if it remains unfilled or when a vacancy cannot be filled by a given category of disabled persons due to the nature of the vacancy.
¨ Formulate schemes on related matters like: Training, relaxation of upper age limit, regulating the employment, health and safely measures, creation of a non-handicapping environment in work-places employing disabled persons
¨ 3% reservation for persons with disabilities in all poverty alleviation schemes
Q. How does the Act protect a disabled person from discrimination at work?
A. The Act stresses that employers must provide for a non-handicapping environment in places where persons with disabilities are employed. The Act also mandates that:
¨ A disabled person working in any government establishment cannot be denied promotion merely on the ground of his disability.
¨ Anyone employed in a government established who acquires a disability during his employment:
v Cannot be dispensed with or reduced in rank
v If, after acquiring the disability, an employee is not suitable to continue on his post, he may be shifted to a suitable post with the same pay-scale and service benefits
v Pending availability of a suitable post, a supernumerary post should be created for such a person.
Q. Does the Act provide for employment in the private sector?
A. There are no reservations mandated for the private sector. However, the Act mandates that the government must announce schemes providing incentives to employers in public and private sectors to ensure that at least 5% of the workforce comprises persons with disabilities.
Q. Does the Act promote entrepreneurship/ownership amongst disabled people?
A. Yes, the Disabilities Act provides for preferential allotment of land to disabled persons at concessional rates by the government for building their own houses, setting up of any business or factories and establishing special schools, research centres or special recreational centres.
Q. Is there any duty on the government's part to provide and promote education among disabled persons?
A. Yes, to provide education to persons with disabilities, the government must:
¨ Ensure free education for every disabled person, in an appropriate environment, till 18 years of age
¨ Promote integration of disabled students in mainstream schools
¨ Promote setting up of special schools in the government and private sectors, equip these schools with vocational training facilities and ensure that disabled students living in every part of the country have access to such schools
¨ For infrastructure and other support, announce schemes for:
v Transport facilities for disabled children or, in the alternative, financial incentives to parents/guardians to enable their disabled children to attend schools
v Removal of architectural barriers from schools, colleges or other institutions imparting vocational and professional training to make them accessible
v Supply of books, uniforms and other material to disabled children
v Grant of scholarships to disabled students
v Setting up of appropriate forums for redressal of grievances of parents regarding placement of their disabled children
v Suitable modification in the examination system for the benefit of visually impaired students, to eliminate purely mathematical questions
v Restructuring of curriculum for the benefit of all the disabled children, specifically for students with hearing impairment, allowing learning in only one language
v Amanuensis (scribes/writers) for visually impaired students
¨ To develop institutional support, set up adequate number of teachers' training institutions and assist the national institutions and assist the national institutes and other voluntary organisations to develop teachers' training programmes specialising in disabilities
¨ Make schemes in the area of non-formal education of disabled persons
¨ All government educational institutes, and those receiving aid from the government, must provide 3% reservation for persons with disabilities
"I dream of going to school like other children. can the disabilities act make this dream come true for me?"
But I can't travel in any public transport or access most buildings. What about this?
Q. What should the government do to prevent discrimination against disabled persons in using modes of transport?
A. Government establishments related to the transport sector must:
¨ Adapt rail compartments, buses, vessels and aircraft for easy access and use by disabled persons
¨ Adapt toilets in rail compartments, ships and other vessels, aircraft and waiting rooms for the convenience of wheelchair users
Q. What should the government do to protect discrimination in use of roads?
A. The government must provide for:
¨ Installation of auditory traffic signals, engraving on the surface of zebra crossings and on the edges of railway platforms to assist visually impaired persons
¨ Slopes in pavements for easy access of wheelchair users
¨ Devising appropriate symbols of disability
¨ Installation of warning signals at appropriate places
Q. What should the government do to enable disabled persons to access public buildings?
A. The government must provide the following in public buildings:
¨ Ramps in all public buildings
¨ Adapted toilets for wheelchair users
¨ Braille symbols and auditory signals in lifts
¨ Take such steps to ensure a barrier-free environment in public places, work places, public utilities, schools and other institutions
Q. What should the government do for providing 'social security' and 'rehabilitation' of disabled persons?
A. The government must:
¨ Frame schemes for payment of 'unemployment allowance' to disabled persons registered with the Special Employment Exchange for more than two years but still unemployed
¨ Issue notification framing 'insurance scheme' or 'security scheme' for its employees with disabilities
¨ Undertake 'rehabilitation' of all disabled persons to enable them to reach and maintain optimal physical, sensory, intellectual, psychiatric or social functional levels, including providing aids and appliances
Who implements the act? Is there any special office for redressal of our grievances?
Q. Who is the implementing authority under the Disabilities Act?
A. The Disabilities Act provides for the following authorities:
¨ Chief Commissioner (at the Central level) and State Commissioners
¨ Central and State Coordination Committees
¨ Central and State Executive Committees
Q. What are the powers of Chief Commissioner/State Commissioners?
A. The Chief Commissioner may, on his own, or on the application of any aggrieved person, or otherwise, look into complaints with respect to:
v Deprivation of rights of disabled persons
v Non-implementation of laws, rules, bye-laws, regulations, executive orders, guidelines or instructions framed for welfare and protection of rights of disabled persons
¨ The Chief Commissioner may thereafter take up the matter with the appropriate authorities
¨ The Chief Commissioner shall also:
v Coordinate the work of the State Commissioners
v Monitor the utilisation of funds disbursed by the Central Government
v Safeguard the rights and facilities available to disabled persons
v Submit reports to the Central Government on the implementation of the Act at regular intervals
¨ The State Commissioner have the same power/functions at the State level
Q. What are the functions assigned to the Coordination Committees?
A. The Central and State Coordination Committees-at Central and State levels respectively-must review and coordinate the activities of all government departments and NGOs and advise the respective government on formulation of disability-related policies, programmes, legislation and projects. They must also monitor and evaluate the impact of policies and programmes designed for achieving equality and full participation of disabled people and such other functions as may be prescribed by the government.
Q. What are the functions assigned to the Executive Committees?
A. The Central and State Executive Committees have been - at Central and State levels, respectively - must carry out the decisions of he Central Coordination Committee and perform other functions which may be delegated to it by the Coordination Committee.
What can I do?
Q. What must a disabled person do to enforce the rights created under the Disabilities Act?
A. A disabled person can make representations to the concerned government and/or the concerned establishment, if there is deprivation or violation of any right provided under the Disabilities Act. If there is no response, or if the response is negative/inadequate, one can approach the concerned Commissioner of Disabilities. Alternatively, one can file a Writ Petition under Article 226 of the Constitution of India, in the concerned High Court. If there is any violation of a Constitutional right also, of national importance, a Writ Petition can be filed under Article 32 of the Constitution, before the Supreme Court.
Q. What can be done against violations of the rights under the Disabilities Act, that affect an entire group of disabled people?
A. A disabled individual or a group of disabled individuals or even a concerned NGO, may, on behalf of the affected group or class, initiate Public Interest Litigations (PILs) in the High Court, or, where it also amounts to violation of Constitutional rights of national importance, in the Supreme Court. For instance, PILs may be initiated on issues regarding education and/or employment of the disabled, use and access in public transport system, civic amenities, public buildings, or the like, which affect and benefit more than one disabled person.
Persons with Disabilities Act - 1995
disabilities-act1995
THE PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES (EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES, PROTECTION OF
RIGHTS AND FULL PARTICIPATION) ACT, 1995
No.1 OF 1996
[1stJanuary,1996]
An Act to give effect to the Proclamation on the Full Participation and Equality of the people with
Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific Region.
WHEREAS the Meeting to Launch the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons 1993-----2002
convened by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific held at Beijing on 1st to 5th
December, 1992, adopted the Proclamation on the Full participation and Equality of people with
Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific Region;
AND WHEREAS India is a signatory to the said Proclamation;
AND WHEREAS it is considered necessary to implement to Proclamation aforesaid.
BE it enacted by Parliament in the Forty-sixth Year of the Republic of India as follows:---
CHAPTER 1
PRELIMINARY
1.Short title.Extent and commencement.- (1) This Act may be called the Persons With Disabilities (Equal
Opportunities.Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.
(2) It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
(3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification, appoint.
2.Definitions.- In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,----
(a) "appropriate Government" means.----
(I) in relation to the Central Government or any establishment wholly or substantially financed by that
Government, or a Cantonment Board constituted under the Cantonment Act, 1924 (2 of 1924), the
Central Government;
(ii) in relation to a State Government or any establishment wholly or substantially financed by that
Government, or any local authority, other than a Cantonment Board, the State Government;
(iii) in respect of the Central Coordination Committee and the Central Executive Committee, the Central
Government.
(iv) in respect of the State Coordination Committee and the State Executive Committee, the State
Government;
(b) "blindness" refers to a condition where a person suffers from any of the following conditions,
namely:---
(I) total absence of sight.
(ii) visual acuity not exceeding 6/60 or 20/200 (snellen) in the better eye with correcting lenses; or
(iii) limitation of the filed of vision subtending an angle of 20 degree or worse;
(c) "Central Coordination Committee" means the Central Coordination Committee constituted under
sub-section (1) of section 3;
(d) "Central Executive Committee" means the Central Executive Committee constituted under
sub-section (1) of section 9;
(e) "cerebral palsy" means a group of non-progressive conditions of a person characterised by abnormal
motor control posture resulting from brain insult or injuries occurring in the pre-natal, peri-natal or infant
period of development;
(f) "Chief Commissioner" means the Commissioner appointed under Sub-section (1) of section 57;
(g) "Commissioner" means the Commissioner appointed under sub-section (1) of section 60;
(h) "competent authority" means the authority appointed under section 50;
(I) "disability" means------
(I) blindness;
(ii) low vision;
(iii) leprosy-cured;
(iv) hearing impairment;
(v) locomotor disability;
(vi) mental retardation;
(vii) mental illness;
(j) "employer" means,----
(I) in relation to a Government, the authority notified by the Head of the Department in this behalf or
where no such authority is notified, the Head of the Department; and
(ii) in relation to an establishment, the chief executive officer of that establishment;
(k) "establishment" means a corporation established by or under a Central, Provincial or State Act, or an
authority or a body owned or controller or aided by the Government or a local authority or a Government
company as defined in section 617 of the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956) and includes Department of a
Government;
(l) "hearing impairment" means loss of sixty decibels or more in the better year in the conversational
range of frequencies;
(m) "institution for person with disabilities" means an institution for the reception, care, protection,
education, training, rehabilitation or any other service of persons with disabilities;
(n) "leprosy cured person" means any person who has been cured of leprosy but is suffering from---
(I) loss of sensation in hands or feet as well as loss of sensation and paresis in the eye and eye-lid but
with no manifest deformity;
(ii) manifest deformity and paresis but having sufficient mobility in their hands and feet to enable them
to engage in normal economic activity;
(iii) extreme physical deformity as well as advanced age which prevents him from undertaking any
gainful occupation,
and the expression "leprosy cured" shall be construed accordingly;
(o) "locomotor disability" means disability of the bones, joints or muscles leading to substantial
restriction of the movement of the limbs or any form of cerebral palsy;
(p) "medical authority" means any hospital or institution specified for the purposes of this Act by
notification by the appropriate Government;
(q) "mental illness" means any mental disorder other than mental retardation;
(r) "mental retardation" means a condition of arrested or incomplete development of mind of a person
which is specially characterised by subnormality of intelligence;
(s) "notification" means a notification published in the Official Gazette;
(t) "person with disability" means a person suffering from not less than forty per cent of any disability as
certified by a medical authority;
(u) "person with low vision" means a person with impairment of visual functioning even after treatment
or standard refractive correction but who uses or is potentially capable of using vision for the planning or
execution of a task with appropriate assistive device;
(v) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act;
(w) "rehabilitation" refers to a process aimed at enabling persons with disabilities to reach and maintain
their optimal physical, sensory, intellectual, psychiatric or social functional levels;
(x) "Special Employment Exchange" means any office or place established and maintained by the
Government for the collection and furnishing of information, either by keeping of registers or otherwise,
respecting----
(I) persons who seek to engage employees from amongst the persons suffering from disabilities;
(ii) persons with disability who seek employment;
(iii) vacancies to which person with disability seeking employment may be appointed;
(y) "State Coordination Committee" means the State Coordination Committee constituted under
sub-section (1) of section 13;
(z) "State Executive Committee" means the State Executive Committee constituted under sub-section (1)
of section 19.
CHAPTER II
THE CENTRAL COORDINATION COMMITTEE
3.Central Coordination Committee.- (1) The Central Government shall by notification constitute a body
to be knows as the Central Coordination Committee to exercise the powers conferred on, an to perform
the functions assigned to it, under this Act.
(2) The Central Coordination Committee shall consist of------
(a) the Minister the charge of the Department of Welfare in the Central Government, Chairperson, ex
officio;
(b) the Minister of State in-charge of the Department of Welfare in the Central Government,
Vice-Chairperson, ex officio;
(c) Secretaries to the Government of India in-charge of the Departments of Welfare, Education, Woman
and Child Development, Expenditure, Personnel, Training and Public Grievances, Health, Rural
Development, Industrial Development, Urban Affairs and Employment, Science and Technology, Legal
Affairs, Public Enterprises, Members, ex officio;
(d) Chief Commissioner, Member, ex officio;
(e) Chairman Railway Board, Member, ex officio;
(f) Director-General of Labour, Employment and Trading, Member, ex officio;
(g) Director, National Council for Educational Research and Trading, Member.ex officio;
(h) three Members of Parliament, of whom two shall be elected by the House of the People and one by
the Council of States, Members;
(I) three persons to be nominated by the Central Government to represent the interests, which in the
opinion of that Government ought to be represented, Members;
(j) Directors of the----
(i) National Institute for the Visually Handicapped, Dehradun;
(ii) National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped, Secundrabad;
(iii) National Institute for the Orthopaedically Handicapped, Calcutta;
(iv) Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped, Bombay,Members, ex officio;
(k) four Members to be nominated by the Central Government by rotation to represent the State and the
Union territories in such manner as may be prescribed by the Central Government;
Provided that no appointment under this clause shall be made except on the recommendation of the State
Government or, as the case may be, the Union territory;
(1) five persons as far as practicable, being persons with disabilities, to represent non-governmental
organisations or associations which are concerned with disabilities, to be nominated by the Central
Government, one from each area of disability, Members:
Provided that while nominating persons under this clause, the Central Government shall nominate at least
one woman and one person belonging to Scheduled Castes or scheduled Tribes;
(m) Joint Secretary to the Government of India in the Ministry of Welfare dealing with the welfare of the
handicapped, Member-Secretary, ex officio.
(3) The office of the Member of the Central Coordination Committee shall not disqualify its holder for
being chosen as or for being a Member of either House of Parliament.
4.Term of office of Members.- (1) Save as otherwise provided by or under this Act a Member of Central
Coordination Committee nominated under clause (I) or clause (l) of sub-section (2) of section 3 shall
hold office for a term of three years from the date of his nomination;
Provided that such a Member shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office
until his successor enters upon his office.
(2) The term of office of an ex officio Member shall come to an end as soon as he ceases to hold the
office by virtue of which he was so nominated.
(3) The Central Government may if it thinks fit remove any Member nominated under clause (I) or
clause (l) of sub-section (2) of section 3, before the expiry of his term of office after giving him a
reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the same.
(4) A Member nominated under clause (I) or clause (l) of sub-section (2) of sub-section (2) of section 3
may at any time resign his office by writing under his hand addressed to the Central Government and the
seat of the said Member shall thereupon become vacant.
(5) A casual vacancy in the Central Coordination Committee shall be filled by a fresh nomination and the
person nominated to fill the vacancy shall hold office only for the remainder of the term for which the
Member in whose place he was so nominated.
(6) A Member nominated under clause (I) or clause (I) of sub-section (2) of section 3 shall be eligible for
renomination.
(7) Members nominated under clause (I) and clause (l) of sub-section (2) of section 3 shall receive such
allowances as may be prescribed by the Central Government.
CHAPTER VI EMPLOYMENT
32.Identification of posts which can be reserved for persons with disabilities.- Appropriate Governments
shall-
(a) identify posts, in the establishments, which can be reserved for the persons with disability;
(b) at periodical intervals not exceeding three years, review the list of posts identified and up-date the list
taking into consideration the developments in technology.
33.Reservation of posts.- Every appropriate Governments shall appoint in every establishment such
percentage of vacancies not less than three per cent for persons or class of persons with disability of
which one per cent each shall be reserved for persons suffering from-
(i) blindness or low vision;
(ii) hearing impairment;
(iii) locomotor disability or cerebral palsy,
in the posts identified for each disability:
Provided, that the appropriate Government may, having regard to the type of work carried on in any
department or establishment by notification subject to such conditions, if any, as may be specified in
such notification, exempt any establishment from the provisions of this section.
34.Special Employment Exchange.- (1) The appropriate Government may, by notification require that
from such date as may be specified by notification the employer in every establishment shall furnish such
information or return as may be prescribed in relation to vacancies appointed for persons with disability
have occurred or are about to occur in that establishment to such Special Employment Exchange as may
be prescribed and the establishment shall thereupon comply with such requisition.
(2) The form in which and the intervals of time for which information or returns shall be furnished and
the particulars, they shall contain shall be such as may be prescribed.
35.Power to inspect record or document in possession of any establishment.- Any person authorised by
the Special Employment Exchange in writing, shall have access to any relevant record or document in
the possession of any establishment and may enter at reasonable time and premises where he believes
such record or document to be, and inspect or take copies of relevant records or documents or ask any
questions necessary for obtaining any information.
36.Vacancies not filled up to be carried forward.- Where in any recruitment year any vacancy under
section 33, cannot be filled up due to non-availability of a suitable person with disability or, for any other
sufficient reason, such vacancy shall be carried forward in the succeeding recruitment year and if in the
succeeding recruitment year also suitable person with disability is not available, it may first be filled by
interchange among the three categories and only when there is no person with disability available for the
post in that year the employer shall fill up the vacancy by appointment of a person, other than a person
with disability.
Provided that if the nature of vacancies in an establishment is such that a given category of person cannot
be employed, the vacancies may be interchanged among the three categories with the prior approval of
the appropriate Government.
37.Employers to maintain records.- (1) Every employer shall maintain such record in relation to the
person with disability employed in his establishment in such form and in such manner as may be
prescribed by the appropriate Government.
(2) The records maintained under sub-section (1) shall be open to inspection at all reasonable hours by
such persons as may be authorised in this behalf by general or special order by the appropriate
Government.
38.Schemes for ensuring employment of persons with disabilities.- (1) The appropriate Governments and
local authorities shall by notification formulate schemes for ensuring employment of persons with
disabilities, and such schemes may provide for-
(a) the training and welfare of persons with disabilities;
(b) the relaxation of upper age limit;
(c) regulating the employment;
(d) health and safety measures and creation of non-handicapping environment in places where persons
with disabilities are employed;
(e) the manner in which and the persons by whom the cost of operating the schemes is to be defrayed;
and
(f) constituting the authority responsible for the administration of the scheme.
39.All educational institutions to reserve seats for persons with disabilities.- All Government educational
institutions and other educational institutions receiving aid from the Government, shall reserve not less
than three per cent.seats for persons with disabilities.
40.Vacancies to be reserved in poverty alleviation schemes.- The appropriate Governments and local
authorities shall reserve not less than three per cent in all poverty alleviation schemes for the benefit of
persons with disabilities.
41.Incentives to employers to ensure five per cent.Of the work force is composed of persons with
disabilities.- The appropriate Governments and the local authorities shall, within the limits of their
economic capacity and development, provide incentives to employers both in public and private sectors
to ensure that at least five per cent.of their work force is composed of persons with disabilities.
CHAPTER VII
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
42.Aids and appliances to persons with disabilities.- The appropriate Governments shall by notification
make schemes to provide aids and appliances to persons with disabilities.
43.Schemes for preferential allotment of land for certain purposes.- The appropriate Governments and
local authorities shall by notification frame schemes in favour of persons with disabilities, for the
preferential allotment of land at concessional rates for-
(a) house;
(b) setting up business;
(c) setting up of special recreation centres;
(d) establishment of special schools;
(e) establishment of research centres;
(f) establishment of factories by entrepreneurs with disabilities.
CHAPTER VIII
NON-DISCRIMINATION
44.Non-discrimination in transport.- Establishments in the transport sector shall, within the limits of their
economic capacity and development for the benefit of persons with disabilities, take special measures to-
(a) adapt rail compartments, buses, vessels and aircrafts in such a way as to permit easy access to such
persons;
(b) adapt toilets in rail compartments, vessels, aircrafts and waiting rooms in such a way as to permit the
wheel chair users to use them conveniently.
45.Non-discrimination on the road.- The appropriate Governments and the local authorities shall, within
the limits of their economy capacity and development, provide for-
(a) installation of auditory signals at red lights in the public roads for the benefit of persons with visually
handicap;
(b) causing curb cuts and slopes to be made in pavements for the easy access of wheel chairs users;
(c) engraving on the surface of the zebra crossing for the blind or for persons with low vision;
(d) engraving on the edges of railway platforms for the blind or for persons with low vision;
(e) devising appropriate symbols of disability;
(f) warning signals at appropriate places.
46.Non-discrimination in the built environment.- The appropriate Governments and the local authorities
shall, within the limits of their economics capacity and development provide for-
(a) ramps in public buildings;
(b) adaptation of toilets for wheel chair users;
(c) braille symbols and auditory signals in elevators or lifts;
(d) ramps in hospitals, primary health centres and other medical care and rehabilitation institutions.
47.Non-discrimination in Government employment.- (1) No establishment shall dispense with, or reduce
in rank, an employee who acquires a disability during his service;
Provided that, if an employee, after acquiring disability is not suitable for the post he was holding, could
be shifted to some other post with the same pay scale and service benefits;
Provided further that if it is not possible to adjust the employee against any post, he may be kept on a
supernumerary post until a suitable post is available or he attains the age of superannuation whichever is
earlier.
(2) No promotion shall be denied to a person merely on the ground of his disability;
Provided that the appropriate Government may having regard to the type of work carried on in any
establishment by notification and subject to such conditions if any as may be specified in such
notification exempt any establishment from the provisions of this section.
CHAPTER IX
RESEARCH AND MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT
48.Research.- The appropriate Governments and local authorities shall promote and sponsor research,
inter alia, in the following areas:-
(a) prevention of disability;
(b) rehabilitation including community based rehabilitation;
(c) development of assistive devices including their psycho-social aspects;
(d) job identification;
(e) on site modifications in offices and factories.
49.Financial incentives to Universities to enable them to undertake research.- The appropriate
Governments shall provide financial assistance to universities other institutions of higher learning
professional bodies and non-governmental research units or institutions, for undertaking research for
special education, rehabilitation and manpower development.
CHAPTER X
RECOGNITION OF INSTITUTIONS FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
50.Competent authority.- The State Government shall appoint any authority as it deems fit to be a
competent authority for the purposes of this Act.
51.No person to establish or maintain an institution for persons with disabilities except in accordance
with a certificate of registration.- Save as otherwise provided under this Act, no person shall establish or
maintain any institution for persons with disabilities except under and in accordance with a certificate of
registration issued in this behalf by the competent authority;
Provided that a person maintaining an institution for persons with disabilities immediately before the
commencement of this Act may continue to maintain such institution for a period of six months from
such commencement and if he has made an application for such certificate under this section within the
said period of six months, till the disposal of such application.
52.Certificate of registration.- (1) Every application for a certificate of registration shall be made to the
competent authority in such form and in such manner as may be prescribed by the State Government.
(2) On receipt of an application under sub-section (1), the competent authority shall make such enquiries
as it may deem fit and where it is satisfied that the applicant has complied with the requirements of this
Act and the rules made thereunder it shall grant a certificate of registration to the applicant and where it
is not so satisfied the competent authority shall, by order, refuse to grant the certificate applied for;
Provided that before making any order refusing to grant a certificate the competent authority shall give to
the applicant a reasonable opportunity of being heard and every order of refusal to grant a certificate
shall be communicated to the applicant in such manner as may be prescribed by the State Government.
(3) No certificate of registration shall be granted under sub-section (2) unless the institution with respect
to which an application has been made is in a position to provide such facilities and maintain such
standards as may be prescribed by the State Government.
(4) A certificate of registration granted under this section,-
(a) shall , unless revoked under section 53, remain in force for such period as may be prescribed by the
State Government.
(b) may be renewed from time to time for a like period; and
(c) shall be in such form and shall be subject to such conditions as may be prescribed by the State
Government.
(5) An application for renewal of a certificate of registration shall be made not less than sixty days before
the period of validity.
(6) The certificate of registration shall be displayed by the institution in a conspicuous place.
53.Revocation of certificate.- (1) the competent authority may, if it has reasonable cause to believe that
the holder of the certificate of registration granted under sub-section (2) of section 52 has-
(a) made a statement in relation to any application for the issue or renewal of the certificate which is
incorrect or false in material particulars; or
(b) committed or has caused to be committed any breach of rules or any conditions subject to which the
certificate was granted.
it may, after making such inquiry as it deems fit, by order revoke the certificate;
Provided that no such order shall be made until an opportunity is given to the holder of the certificate to
show cause as to why the certificate should not be revoked.
(2) Where a certificate in respect of an institution has been revoked under sub-section (1) such institution
shall cease to function from the date of such revocation;
Provided that where an appeal lies under section 54 against the order of revocation, such institution shall
cease to function-
(a) where no appeal has been preferred immediately on the expiry of the period prescribed for the filing
of such appeal, or
(b) where such appeal has been preferred, but the order of revocation has been upheld, from the date of
the order of appeal.
(3) On the revocation of a certificate in respect of an institution, the competent authority may direct that
any person with disability who is an inmate of such institution on the date of such revocation, shall be-
(a) restored to the custody of her or his parent, spouse or lawful guardian as the case may be or
(b) transferred to any other institution specified by the competent authority.
(4) Every institution which holds a certificate of registration which is revoked under this section shall
immediately after such revocation surrender such certificate to the competent authority.
54.Appeal.- (1) Any person aggrieved by the order of the competent authority refusing to grant a
certificate or revoking a certificate may, within such period as may be prescribed by the State
Government, prefer an appeal to that Government against such refusal or revocation.
(2) The order of the State Government on such appeal shall be final.
55.Act not to apply to institutions established or maintained by the Central or State government.-
Nothing contained in this Chapter shall apply to an institution for persons with disabilities established or
maintained by the Central Government or a State Government.
CHAPTER XI
INSTITUTION FOR PERSONS WITH SEVERE DISABILITIES
56.Institutions for persons with severe disabilities.- The appropriate Government may establish and
maintain institutions for persons with severe disabilities at such places as it thinks fit.
(2) Where, the appropriate Government is of opinion that any institution other than an institution,
established under sub-section (1) is fit for the rehabilitation of the persons with severe disabilities, the
Government may recognise such institution as an institution for persons with severe disabilities for the
purpose of this Act;
Provided that no institution shall be recognised under this section unless such institutions has complied
with the requirements of this Act and the rules made thereunder.
(3) Every institution established under sub-section (1) shall be maintained in such manner and satisfy
such conditions as may be prescribed by the appropriate Government.
(4) For the purpose of this section "person with severe disability" means a person with eighty per cent.or
more disabilities.
CHAPTER XII
THE CHIEF COMMISSIONER AND COMMISSIONERS FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
57.Appointment of Chief Commissioner for persons with disabilities.- (1) The Central Government may,
by notification appoint a Chief Commissioner for persons with disabilities for the purposes of this Act.
(2) A person shall not be qualified for appointment as the Chief Commissioner unless he has special
knowledge or practical experience in respect of matters relating to rehabilitation.
(3) The salary and allowances payable to and other terms and conditions of service (including pension,
gratuity and other retirement benefits) of the Chief Commissioner shall be such as may be prescribed by
the Central Government.
(4) The Central Government shall determine the nature and categories of officers and other employees
required to assist the Chief Commissioner in the discharge of his functions and provide the Chief
Commissioner with such officers and other employees as it thinks fit.
(5) The officers and employees provided to the Chief Commissioner shall discharge their functions under
the general superintendence of the Commissioner.
(6) The salaries and allowances and other conditions of service of officers and employees provided to the
Commissioner shall be such as may be prescribed by the State Government.
58.Functions of the Chief Commissioner.- The Chief Commissioner shall-
(a) coordinate the work of the Commissioners:
(b) monitor the utilisation of funds disbursed by the Central Government:
(c) take steps to safeguard the rights and facilities made available to persons with disabilities
(d) submit reports to the Central Government on the implementation of the Act at such intervals as that
Government may prescribe.
59.Chief commissioner to look into complaints with respect to deprivation of rights of persons with
disabilities.- Without prejudice to the provisions of sections 58 the Chief Commissioner may of his own
motion on the application of any aggrieved person or otherwise look into complaints with respect to
matters relating to-
(a) deprivation of rights of persons with disabilities ;
(b) non-implementation of laws rules, bye-laws, regulations, executive orders, guidelines or instructions
made or issued by the appropriate governments and the local authorities for the welfare and protection of
rights or persons with disabilities,
and take up the matter with the appropriate authorities.
60.Appointment of Commissioners for persons with disabilities.- (1) Every State Government may, by
notification appoint a Commissioner for persons with disabilities for the purpose of this Act.
(2) A person shall not be qualified for appointment as a Commissioner unless he has special knowledge
or practical experience in respect of matters relating to rehabilitation.
(3) The salary and allowances payable to and other terms and conditions of service (including pension,
gratuity and other retirement benefits) of the Commissioner shall be such as may be prescribed by the
State Government.
(4) The State Government shall determine the nature and categories of officers and other employees
required to assist the Commissioner in the discharge of his functions and provide the Commissioner with
such officers and other employees as it thinks fit.
(5) The officers and employees provided to the Commissioner shall discharge their functions under the
general superintendence of the Commissioner.
(6) The salaries and allowances and other conditions of service of officers and employees provided to the
Commissioner shall be such as may be prescribed by the State Government.
61.Powers of the Commissioner.- The Commissioner within the State shall-
(a) coordinate with the departments of the State Government for the programmes and schemes for the
benefit of persons with disabilities;
(b) monitor the utilisation of funds disbursed by the State Government;
(c) take steps to safeguard the rights and facilities made available to persons with disabilities;
(d) submit reports to the State Government on the implementation of the Act at such intervals as that
Government may prescribe and forward a copy thereof to the Chief Commissioner.
62.Commissioner to look into complaints with respect to matters relating to deprivation of rights of
persons with disabilities.- Without prejudice to the provisions of section 61 the Commissioner may of his
own motion or on the application of any aggrieved person or otherwise look into complaints with respect
to matters relating to-
(a) deprivation of rights of persons with disabilities;
(b) non-implementation of laws, rules, bye-laws, regulations, executive orders, guidelines or instructions
made or issued by the appropriate Governments and the local authorities for the welfare and protection of
rights of persons with disabilities.
and take up the matter with the appropriate authorities.
63.Authorities and officers to have certain powers of civil court.- The Chief Commissioner and the
Commissioners shall, for the purpose of discharging their functions under this Act, have the same powers
as are vested in a court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 while trying a suit, in respect of the
following matters namely:-
(a) summoning and enforcing the attendance of witnesses;
(b) requiring the discovery and production of any document;
(c) requisitioning any public record or copy thereof from any court of office;
(d) receiving evidence on affidavits; and
(e) issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or documents.
(2) Every proceeding before the Chief Commissioner and Commissioner shall be a judicial proceeding
within the meaning of sections 193 and 228 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) and the Chief
Commissioner, the Commissioner, the competent authority, shall be deemed to be a civil court for the
purpose of section 195 and Chapter XXVI of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974).
64.Annual report to be prepared by the Chief Commissioner.- (1) The Chief Commissioner shall prepare
in such form and at such time for each financial year as may be prescribed by the Central Government an
annual report giving a full account of his activities during the previous financial year and forward a copy
thereof to the Central Government.
(2) The Central Government shall cause the annual report to be laid before each House of Parliament
along with the recommendations explaining the action taken or proposed to be taken on the
recommendation made therein in so far as they relate to the Central Government and the reasons for
non-acceptance, if any, of any such recommendation or part.
65.Annual reports to be prepared by the Commissioners.- (1) The Commissioner shall prepare in such
form and at such time for each financial year as may be prescribed by the State Government an annual
report giving a full account of his activities during the previous financial year and forward a copy thereof
to the State Government.
(2) The State Government shall cause the annual report to be laid before each State Legislature along
with the recommendations explaining the action taken or proposed to be taken on the recommendation
made therein in so far as they relate to the State Government and the reasons for non-acceptance, if any,
of any such recommendation or part.
CHAPTER XIII
SOCIAL SECURITY
66.Appropriate Governments and local authorities to undertake rehabilitation.- (1) The appropriate
Governments and the local authorities shall within the limits of their economic capacity and development
undertake or cause to be undertaken rehabilitation of all persons with disabilities.
(2) For purpose of sub-section (1), the appropriate Governments and local authorities shall grant financial
assistance to non-governmental organisations.
(3) The appropriate Governments and local authorities while formulating rehabilitation policy shall
consult the non-governmental organisations working for the cause of persons with disabilities.
67.Insurance scheme for employees with disabilities.- (1) The appropriate Government shall by
notification frame an insurance scheme for the benefit of its employees with disabilities.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in this section the appropriate Government may instead of
framing an insurance scheme frame an alternative security scheme for its employees with disabilities.
68.Unemployment allowance.- The appropriate Governments shall within the limits of their economic
capacity and development shall by notification frame a scheme for payment of an unemployment
allowance to persons with disabilities registered with the Special Employment Exchange for more than
two years and who could not be placed in any gainful occupation.
CHAPTER XIV
MISCELLANEOUS
69.Punishment for fraudulently availing any benefit meant for persons with disabilities.- Whoever,
fraudulently avails or attempts to avail, any benefit meant for persons with disabilities shall be
punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years or with fine which may extend
to twenty thousand rupees or with both.
70.Chief Commissioners, Commissioners, officers and other staff to be public servants.- The Chief
Commissioner, the Commissioner and the officers and staff provided to them shall be deemed to be
public servants within the meaning of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).
71.Protection of action taken in good faith.- No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie
against the Central Government, the State Governments or the local authority or any officer of the
Government in respect of anything which is done in good faith or intended to be done in pursuance of
this Act and any rules or orders made thereunder.
72.Act to be in addition to and not in derogation of any other law.- The provisions of this Act, or the
rules made thereunder shall be in addition to, and not in derogation of any other law for the time being in
force or any rules, order or any instructions issued thereunder, enacted or issued for the benefit or
persons with disabilities.
73.Power of appropriate Government to make rules.- (1) The appropriate Government may, by
notification, make rules for carrying out the provisions of this Act.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing powers, such rules may provide
for all or any of the following matters, namely:-
(a) the manner in which a State Government or a Union territory shall be chosen under clause (k) of
sub-section (2) of section 3;
(b) allowances which members shall receive under sub-section (7) of section 4;
(c) rules of procedure which the Central Coordination Committee shall observe in regard to the
transaction of business in its meetings under section 7;
(d) such other functions which the Central Coordination Committee may perform under clause (h) of
sub-section (2) of section 8;
(e) the manner in which a State Government or a Union territory shall be chosen under clause (h) of
sub-section (2) of section 9;
(f) the allowances which the Members shall receive under sub-section (3) of section 9;
(g) rules of procedure which the Central Executive Committee shall observe in regard to transaction of
business at its meetings under section 11;
(h) the manner and purposes for which a person may be associated under sub-section (1) of section 12;
(i) fees and allowances which a person associated with the Central Executive Committee shall receive
under sub-section (3) of section 12;
(j) allowances which members shall receive under sub-section (7) of section 14;
(k) rules of procedure which a State Coordination Committee shall observe in regard to transaction of
business in its meetings under section 17;
(l) such other functions which a State Coordination Committee may perform under clause (g) of
sub-section (2) of section 18;
(m) the allowances which Members shall receive under sub-section (3) of section 19;
(n) rules of procedure which a State Executive Committee shall observe in regard to transaction of
business at its meetings under section 21;
(o) the manner and purposes for which a person may be associated under sub-section (l) of section 22;
(p) fees and allowances which a person associated with the State Executive Committee may receive
under sub-section (3) of section 22;
(q) information or return which the employer in every establishment should furnish and the Special
Employment Exchange to which such information or return shall be furnished under sub-section (1) of
section 34;
(r) the form and the manner in which record shall be maintained by an employer under sub-section (1) of
section 37;
(s) the form and manner in which an application shall be made under sub-section (1) of section 52;
(t) the manner in which an order of refusal shall be communicated under sub-section (2) of section 52;
(u) facilities or standards required to be provided or maintained under sub-section (3) of section 53;
(v) the period for which a certificate of registration shall be valid under clause (a) of sub-section (4) of
section 52;
(w) the form in which and conditions subject to which a certificate of registration shall be granted under
clause (c) of sub-section (4) of section 52;
(x) period within which an appeal shall lie under sub-section (1) of section 54;
(y) the manner in which an institution for persons with severe disabilities shall be maintained and
conditions which have to be satisfied under sub-section (3) of section 56;
(z) the salary, allowances and other terms and conditions of service of the Chief Commissioner under
sub-section (3) of section 57;
(za) the salary, allowances and other conditions of service of officers and employees under sub-section
(6) of section 57;
(zb) intervals at which the Chief Commissioner shall report to the Central Government under clause (d)
of section 58;
(zc) the salary, allowances and other terms and conditions of service of commissioner under sub -section
(3) of section 60;
(zd) the salary, allowances and other conditions of service of officers and employees under sub-section
(6) of section 60;
(ze) intervals within which the Commissioner shall report to the State Government under clause (d) of
section 61;
(zf) the form and time in which annual report shall be prepared under sub-section (1) of section 64;
(zg) the form and time in which annual report shall be prepared under sub-section (l) of section 65;
(zh) any other matter which is required to be or may be prescribed.
(3) Every notification made by the Central Government under the proviso to section 33 proviso to
sub-section (2) of section 47, every scheme framed by it under section 27, section 30, sub-section (1) of
section 38, section 42, section 43,section 67, section 68 and every rule made by it under sub-section (1),
shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made, before each House of Parliament, while it is in session
for a total period of thirty days which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive
sessions, and if, before the expire of the session immediately following the session or successive sessions
aforesaid, both Houses agree in making any modification in the rule, notification or scheme, both Houses
agree that the rule, notification or scheme should not be made the rule, notification or scheme shall
thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so, however, that
any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of anything previously
done under that rule, notification or scheme, as the case may be.
(4) Every notification made by the State Government under the proviso to section 33, proviso to
sub-section (2)of section 47, every scheme made by it under section 27, section 30, sub-section (1) of
section 38, section 42, section 43, section 67, section 68 and every rule made by it under sub-section (1)
shall be laid as soon as may be after it is made, before each House of State Legislature, where it consists
of two Houses or where such legislature consists of one House before that House.
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THE PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES (EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES, PROTECTION OF
RIGHTS AND FULL PARTICIPATION) ACT, 1995
No.1 OF 1996
[1stJanuary,1996]
An Act to give effect to the Proclamation on the Full Participation and Equality of the people with
Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific Region.
WHEREAS the Meeting to Launch the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons 1993-----2002
convened by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific held at Beijing on 1st to 5th
December, 1992, adopted the Proclamation on the Full participation and Equality of people with
Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific Region;
AND WHEREAS India is a signatory to the said Proclamation;
AND WHEREAS it is considered necessary to implement to Proclamation aforesaid.
BE it enacted by Parliament in the Forty-sixth Year of the Republic of India as follows:---
CHAPTER 1
PRELIMINARY
1.Short title.Extent and commencement.- (1) This Act may be called the Persons With Disabilities (Equal
Opportunities.Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.
(2) It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
(3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification, appoint.
2.Definitions.- In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,----
(a) "appropriate Government" means.----
(I) in relation to the Central Government or any establishment wholly or substantially financed by that
Government, or a Cantonment Board constituted under the Cantonment Act, 1924 (2 of 1924), the
Central Government;
(ii) in relation to a State Government or any establishment wholly or substantially financed by that
Government, or any local authority, other than a Cantonment Board, the State Government;
(iii) in respect of the Central Coordination Committee and the Central Executive Committee, the Central
Government.
(iv) in respect of the State Coordination Committee and the State Executive Committee, the State
Government;
(b) "blindness" refers to a condition where a person suffers from any of the following conditions,
namely:---
(I) total absence of sight.
(ii) visual acuity not exceeding 6/60 or 20/200 (snellen) in the better eye with correcting lenses; or
(iii) limitation of the filed of vision subtending an angle of 20 degree or worse;
(c) "Central Coordination Committee" means the Central Coordination Committee constituted under
sub-section (1) of section 3;
(d) "Central Executive Committee" means the Central Executive Committee constituted under
sub-section (1) of section 9;
(e) "cerebral palsy" means a group of non-progressive conditions of a person characterised by abnormal
motor control posture resulting from brain insult or injuries occurring in the pre-natal, peri-natal or infant
period of development;
(f) "Chief Commissioner" means the Commissioner appointed under Sub-section (1) of section 57;
(g) "Commissioner" means the Commissioner appointed under sub-section (1) of section 60;
(h) "competent authority" means the authority appointed under section 50;
(I) "disability" means------
(I) blindness;
(ii) low vision;
(iii) leprosy-cured;
(iv) hearing impairment;
(v) locomotor disability;
(vi) mental retardation;
(vii) mental illness;
(j) "employer" means,----
(I) in relation to a Government, the authority notified by the Head of the Department in this behalf or
where no such authority is notified, the Head of the Department; and
(ii) in relation to an establishment, the chief executive officer of that establishment;
(k) "establishment" means a corporation established by or under a Central, Provincial or State Act, or an
authority or a body owned or controller or aided by the Government or a local authority or a Government
company as defined in section 617 of the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956) and includes Department of a
Government;
(l) "hearing impairment" means loss of sixty decibels or more in the better year in the conversational
range of frequencies;
(m) "institution for person with disabilities" means an institution for the reception, care, protection,
education, training, rehabilitation or any other service of persons with disabilities;
(n) "leprosy cured person" means any person who has been cured of leprosy but is suffering from---
(I) loss of sensation in hands or feet as well as loss of sensation and paresis in the eye and eye-lid but
with no manifest deformity;
(ii) manifest deformity and paresis but having sufficient mobility in their hands and feet to enable them
to engage in normal economic activity;
(iii) extreme physical deformity as well as advanced age which prevents him from undertaking any
gainful occupation,
and the expression "leprosy cured" shall be construed accordingly;
(o) "locomotor disability" means disability of the bones, joints or muscles leading to substantial
restriction of the movement of the limbs or any form of cerebral palsy;
(p) "medical authority" means any hospital or institution specified for the purposes of this Act by
notification by the appropriate Government;
(q) "mental illness" means any mental disorder other than mental retardation;
(r) "mental retardation" means a condition of arrested or incomplete development of mind of a person
which is specially characterised by subnormality of intelligence;
(s) "notification" means a notification published in the Official Gazette;
(t) "person with disability" means a person suffering from not less than forty per cent of any disability as
certified by a medical authority;
(u) "person with low vision" means a person with impairment of visual functioning even after treatment
or standard refractive correction but who uses or is potentially capable of using vision for the planning or
execution of a task with appropriate assistive device;
(v) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act;
(w) "rehabilitation" refers to a process aimed at enabling persons with disabilities to reach and maintain
their optimal physical, sensory, intellectual, psychiatric or social functional levels;
(x) "Special Employment Exchange" means any office or place established and maintained by the
Government for the collection and furnishing of information, either by keeping of registers or otherwise,
respecting----
(I) persons who seek to engage employees from amongst the persons suffering from disabilities;
(ii) persons with disability who seek employment;
(iii) vacancies to which person with disability seeking employment may be appointed;
(y) "State Coordination Committee" means the State Coordination Committee constituted under
sub-section (1) of section 13;
(z) "State Executive Committee" means the State Executive Committee constituted under sub-section (1)
of section 19.
CHAPTER II
THE CENTRAL COORDINATION COMMITTEE
3.Central Coordination Committee.- (1) The Central Government shall by notification constitute a body
to be knows as the Central Coordination Committee to exercise the powers conferred on, an to perform
the functions assigned to it, under this Act.
(2) The Central Coordination Committee shall consist of------
(a) the Minister the charge of the Department of Welfare in the Central Government, Chairperson, ex
officio;
(b) the Minister of State in-charge of the Department of Welfare in the Central Government,
Vice-Chairperson, ex officio;
(c) Secretaries to the Government of India in-charge of the Departments of Welfare, Education, Woman
and Child Development, Expenditure, Personnel, Training and Public Grievances, Health, Rural
Development, Industrial Development, Urban Affairs and Employment, Science and Technology, Legal
Affairs, Public Enterprises, Members, ex officio;
(d) Chief Commissioner, Member, ex officio;
(e) Chairman Railway Board, Member, ex officio;
(f) Director-General of Labour, Employment and Trading, Member, ex officio;
(g) Director, National Council for Educational Research and Trading, Member.ex officio;
(h) three Members of Parliament, of whom two shall be elected by the House of the People and one by
the Council of States, Members;
(I) three persons to be nominated by the Central Government to represent the interests, which in the
opinion of that Government ought to be represented, Members;
(j) Directors of the----
(i) National Institute for the Visually Handicapped, Dehradun;
(ii) National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped, Secundrabad;
(iii) National Institute for the Orthopaedically Handicapped, Calcutta;
(iv) Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped, Bombay,Members, ex officio;
(k) four Members to be nominated by the Central Government by rotation to represent the State and the
Union territories in such manner as may be prescribed by the Central Government;
Provided that no appointment under this clause shall be made except on the recommendation of the State
Government or, as the case may be, the Union territory;
(1) five persons as far as practicable, being persons with disabilities, to represent non-governmental
organisations or associations which are concerned with disabilities, to be nominated by the Central
Government, one from each area of disability, Members:
Provided that while nominating persons under this clause, the Central Government shall nominate at least
one woman and one person belonging to Scheduled Castes or scheduled Tribes;
(m) Joint Secretary to the Government of India in the Ministry of Welfare dealing with the welfare of the
handicapped, Member-Secretary, ex officio.
(3) The office of the Member of the Central Coordination Committee shall not disqualify its holder for
being chosen as or for being a Member of either House of Parliament.
4.Term of office of Members.- (1) Save as otherwise provided by or under this Act a Member of Central
Coordination Committee nominated under clause (I) or clause (l) of sub-section (2) of section 3 shall
hold office for a term of three years from the date of his nomination;
Provided that such a Member shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office
until his successor enters upon his office.
(2) The term of office of an ex officio Member shall come to an end as soon as he ceases to hold the
office by virtue of which he was so nominated.
(3) The Central Government may if it thinks fit remove any Member nominated under clause (I) or
clause (l) of sub-section (2) of section 3, before the expiry of his term of office after giving him a
reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the same.
(4) A Member nominated under clause (I) or clause (l) of sub-section (2) of sub-section (2) of section 3
may at any time resign his office by writing under his hand addressed to the Central Government and the
seat of the said Member shall thereupon become vacant.
(5) A casual vacancy in the Central Coordination Committee shall be filled by a fresh nomination and the
person nominated to fill the vacancy shall hold office only for the remainder of the term for which the
Member in whose place he was so nominated.
(6) A Member nominated under clause (I) or clause (I) of sub-section (2) of section 3 shall be eligible for
renomination.
(7) Members nominated under clause (I) and clause (l) of sub-section (2) of section 3 shall receive such
allowances as may be prescribed by the Central Government.
CHAPTER VI EMPLOYMENT
32.Identification of posts which can be reserved for persons with disabilities.- Appropriate Governments
shall-
(a) identify posts, in the establishments, which can be reserved for the persons with disability;
(b) at periodical intervals not exceeding three years, review the list of posts identified and up-date the list
taking into consideration the developments in technology.
33.Reservation of posts.- Every appropriate Governments shall appoint in every establishment such
percentage of vacancies not less than three per cent for persons or class of persons with disability of
which one per cent each shall be reserved for persons suffering from-
(i) blindness or low vision;
(ii) hearing impairment;
(iii) locomotor disability or cerebral palsy,
in the posts identified for each disability:
Provided, that the appropriate Government may, having regard to the type of work carried on in any
department or establishment by notification subject to such conditions, if any, as may be specified in
such notification, exempt any establishment from the provisions of this section.
34.Special Employment Exchange.- (1) The appropriate Government may, by notification require that
from such date as may be specified by notification the employer in every establishment shall furnish such
information or return as may be prescribed in relation to vacancies appointed for persons with disability
have occurred or are about to occur in that establishment to such Special Employment Exchange as may
be prescribed and the establishment shall thereupon comply with such requisition.
(2) The form in which and the intervals of time for which information or returns shall be furnished and
the particulars, they shall contain shall be such as may be prescribed.
35.Power to inspect record or document in possession of any establishment.- Any person authorised by
the Special Employment Exchange in writing, shall have access to any relevant record or document in
the possession of any establishment and may enter at reasonable time and premises where he believes
such record or document to be, and inspect or take copies of relevant records or documents or ask any
questions necessary for obtaining any information.
36.Vacancies not filled up to be carried forward.- Where in any recruitment year any vacancy under
section 33, cannot be filled up due to non-availability of a suitable person with disability or, for any other
sufficient reason, such vacancy shall be carried forward in the succeeding recruitment year and if in the
succeeding recruitment year also suitable person with disability is not available, it may first be filled by
interchange among the three categories and only when there is no person with disability available for the
post in that year the employer shall fill up the vacancy by appointment of a person, other than a person
with disability.
Provided that if the nature of vacancies in an establishment is such that a given category of person cannot
be employed, the vacancies may be interchanged among the three categories with the prior approval of
the appropriate Government.
37.Employers to maintain records.- (1) Every employer shall maintain such record in relation to the
person with disability employed in his establishment in such form and in such manner as may be
prescribed by the appropriate Government.
(2) The records maintained under sub-section (1) shall be open to inspection at all reasonable hours by
such persons as may be authorised in this behalf by general or special order by the appropriate
Government.
38.Schemes for ensuring employment of persons with disabilities.- (1) The appropriate Governments and
local authorities shall by notification formulate schemes for ensuring employment of persons with
disabilities, and such schemes may provide for-
(a) the training and welfare of persons with disabilities;
(b) the relaxation of upper age limit;
(c) regulating the employment;
(d) health and safety measures and creation of non-handicapping environment in places where persons
with disabilities are employed;
(e) the manner in which and the persons by whom the cost of operating the schemes is to be defrayed;
and
(f) constituting the authority responsible for the administration of the scheme.
39.All educational institutions to reserve seats for persons with disabilities.- All Government educational
institutions and other educational institutions receiving aid from the Government, shall reserve not less
than three per cent.seats for persons with disabilities.
40.Vacancies to be reserved in poverty alleviation schemes.- The appropriate Governments and local
authorities shall reserve not less than three per cent in all poverty alleviation schemes for the benefit of
persons with disabilities.
41.Incentives to employers to ensure five per cent.Of the work force is composed of persons with
disabilities.- The appropriate Governments and the local authorities shall, within the limits of their
economic capacity and development, provide incentives to employers both in public and private sectors
to ensure that at least five per cent.of their work force is composed of persons with disabilities.
CHAPTER VII
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
42.Aids and appliances to persons with disabilities.- The appropriate Governments shall by notification
make schemes to provide aids and appliances to persons with disabilities.
43.Schemes for preferential allotment of land for certain purposes.- The appropriate Governments and
local authorities shall by notification frame schemes in favour of persons with disabilities, for the
preferential allotment of land at concessional rates for-
(a) house;
(b) setting up business;
(c) setting up of special recreation centres;
(d) establishment of special schools;
(e) establishment of research centres;
(f) establishment of factories by entrepreneurs with disabilities.
CHAPTER VIII
NON-DISCRIMINATION
44.Non-discrimination in transport.- Establishments in the transport sector shall, within the limits of their
economic capacity and development for the benefit of persons with disabilities, take special measures to-
(a) adapt rail compartments, buses, vessels and aircrafts in such a way as to permit easy access to such
persons;
(b) adapt toilets in rail compartments, vessels, aircrafts and waiting rooms in such a way as to permit the
wheel chair users to use them conveniently.
45.Non-discrimination on the road.- The appropriate Governments and the local authorities shall, within
the limits of their economy capacity and development, provide for-
(a) installation of auditory signals at red lights in the public roads for the benefit of persons with visually
handicap;
(b) causing curb cuts and slopes to be made in pavements for the easy access of wheel chairs users;
(c) engraving on the surface of the zebra crossing for the blind or for persons with low vision;
(d) engraving on the edges of railway platforms for the blind or for persons with low vision;
(e) devising appropriate symbols of disability;
(f) warning signals at appropriate places.
46.Non-discrimination in the built environment.- The appropriate Governments and the local authorities
shall, within the limits of their economics capacity and development provide for-
(a) ramps in public buildings;
(b) adaptation of toilets for wheel chair users;
(c) braille symbols and auditory signals in elevators or lifts;
(d) ramps in hospitals, primary health centres and other medical care and rehabilitation institutions.
47.Non-discrimination in Government employment.- (1) No establishment shall dispense with, or reduce
in rank, an employee who acquires a disability during his service;
Provided that, if an employee, after acquiring disability is not suitable for the post he was holding, could
be shifted to some other post with the same pay scale and service benefits;
Provided further that if it is not possible to adjust the employee against any post, he may be kept on a
supernumerary post until a suitable post is available or he attains the age of superannuation whichever is
earlier.
(2) No promotion shall be denied to a person merely on the ground of his disability;
Provided that the appropriate Government may having regard to the type of work carried on in any
establishment by notification and subject to such conditions if any as may be specified in such
notification exempt any establishment from the provisions of this section.
CHAPTER IX
RESEARCH AND MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT
48.Research.- The appropriate Governments and local authorities shall promote and sponsor research,
inter alia, in the following areas:-
(a) prevention of disability;
(b) rehabilitation including community based rehabilitation;
(c) development of assistive devices including their psycho-social aspects;
(d) job identification;
(e) on site modifications in offices and factories.
49.Financial incentives to Universities to enable them to undertake research.- The appropriate
Governments shall provide financial assistance to universities other institutions of higher learning
professional bodies and non-governmental research units or institutions, for undertaking research for
special education, rehabilitation and manpower development.
CHAPTER X
RECOGNITION OF INSTITUTIONS FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
50.Competent authority.- The State Government shall appoint any authority as it deems fit to be a
competent authority for the purposes of this Act.
51.No person to establish or maintain an institution for persons with disabilities except in accordance
with a certificate of registration.- Save as otherwise provided under this Act, no person shall establish or
maintain any institution for persons with disabilities except under and in accordance with a certificate of
registration issued in this behalf by the competent authority;
Provided that a person maintaining an institution for persons with disabilities immediately before the
commencement of this Act may continue to maintain such institution for a period of six months from
such commencement and if he has made an application for such certificate under this section within the
said period of six months, till the disposal of such application.
52.Certificate of registration.- (1) Every application for a certificate of registration shall be made to the
competent authority in such form and in such manner as may be prescribed by the State Government.
(2) On receipt of an application under sub-section (1), the competent authority shall make such enquiries
as it may deem fit and where it is satisfied that the applicant has complied with the requirements of this
Act and the rules made thereunder it shall grant a certificate of registration to the applicant and where it
is not so satisfied the competent authority shall, by order, refuse to grant the certificate applied for;
Provided that before making any order refusing to grant a certificate the competent authority shall give to
the applicant a reasonable opportunity of being heard and every order of refusal to grant a certificate
shall be communicated to the applicant in such manner as may be prescribed by the State Government.
(3) No certificate of registration shall be granted under sub-section (2) unless the institution with respect
to which an application has been made is in a position to provide such facilities and maintain such
standards as may be prescribed by the State Government.
(4) A certificate of registration granted under this section,-
(a) shall , unless revoked under section 53, remain in force for such period as may be prescribed by the
State Government.
(b) may be renewed from time to time for a like period; and
(c) shall be in such form and shall be subject to such conditions as may be prescribed by the State
Government.
(5) An application for renewal of a certificate of registration shall be made not less than sixty days before
the period of validity.
(6) The certificate of registration shall be displayed by the institution in a conspicuous place.
53.Revocation of certificate.- (1) the competent authority may, if it has reasonable cause to believe that
the holder of the certificate of registration granted under sub-section (2) of section 52 has-
(a) made a statement in relation to any application for the issue or renewal of the certificate which is
incorrect or false in material particulars; or
(b) committed or has caused to be committed any breach of rules or any conditions subject to which the
certificate was granted.
it may, after making such inquiry as it deems fit, by order revoke the certificate;
Provided that no such order shall be made until an opportunity is given to the holder of the certificate to
show cause as to why the certificate should not be revoked.
(2) Where a certificate in respect of an institution has been revoked under sub-section (1) such institution
shall cease to function from the date of such revocation;
Provided that where an appeal lies under section 54 against the order of revocation, such institution shall
cease to function-
(a) where no appeal has been preferred immediately on the expiry of the period prescribed for the filing
of such appeal, or
(b) where such appeal has been preferred, but the order of revocation has been upheld, from the date of
the order of appeal.
(3) On the revocation of a certificate in respect of an institution, the competent authority may direct that
any person with disability who is an inmate of such institution on the date of such revocation, shall be-
(a) restored to the custody of her or his parent, spouse or lawful guardian as the case may be or
(b) transferred to any other institution specified by the competent authority.
(4) Every institution which holds a certificate of registration which is revoked under this section shall
immediately after such revocation surrender such certificate to the competent authority.
54.Appeal.- (1) Any person aggrieved by the order of the competent authority refusing to grant a
certificate or revoking a certificate may, within such period as may be prescribed by the State
Government, prefer an appeal to that Government against such refusal or revocation.
(2) The order of the State Government on such appeal shall be final.
55.Act not to apply to institutions established or maintained by the Central or State government.-
Nothing contained in this Chapter shall apply to an institution for persons with disabilities established or
maintained by the Central Government or a State Government.
CHAPTER XI
INSTITUTION FOR PERSONS WITH SEVERE DISABILITIES
56.Institutions for persons with severe disabilities.- The appropriate Government may establish and
maintain institutions for persons with severe disabilities at such places as it thinks fit.
(2) Where, the appropriate Government is of opinion that any institution other than an institution,
established under sub-section (1) is fit for the rehabilitation of the persons with severe disabilities, the
Government may recognise such institution as an institution for persons with severe disabilities for the
purpose of this Act;
Provided that no institution shall be recognised under this section unless such institutions has complied
with the requirements of this Act and the rules made thereunder.
(3) Every institution established under sub-section (1) shall be maintained in such manner and satisfy
such conditions as may be prescribed by the appropriate Government.
(4) For the purpose of this section "person with severe disability" means a person with eighty per cent.or
more disabilities.
CHAPTER XII
THE CHIEF COMMISSIONER AND COMMISSIONERS FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
57.Appointment of Chief Commissioner for persons with disabilities.- (1) The Central Government may,
by notification appoint a Chief Commissioner for persons with disabilities for the purposes of this Act.
(2) A person shall not be qualified for appointment as the Chief Commissioner unless he has special
knowledge or practical experience in respect of matters relating to rehabilitation.
(3) The salary and allowances payable to and other terms and conditions of service (including pension,
gratuity and other retirement benefits) of the Chief Commissioner shall be such as may be prescribed by
the Central Government.
(4) The Central Government shall determine the nature and categories of officers and other employees
required to assist the Chief Commissioner in the discharge of his functions and provide the Chief
Commissioner with such officers and other employees as it thinks fit.
(5) The officers and employees provided to the Chief Commissioner shall discharge their functions under
the general superintendence of the Commissioner.
(6) The salaries and allowances and other conditions of service of officers and employees provided to the
Commissioner shall be such as may be prescribed by the State Government.
58.Functions of the Chief Commissioner.- The Chief Commissioner shall-
(a) coordinate the work of the Commissioners:
(b) monitor the utilisation of funds disbursed by the Central Government:
(c) take steps to safeguard the rights and facilities made available to persons with disabilities
(d) submit reports to the Central Government on the implementation of the Act at such intervals as that
Government may prescribe.
59.Chief commissioner to look into complaints with respect to deprivation of rights of persons with
disabilities.- Without prejudice to the provisions of sections 58 the Chief Commissioner may of his own
motion on the application of any aggrieved person or otherwise look into complaints with respect to
matters relating to-
(a) deprivation of rights of persons with disabilities ;
(b) non-implementation of laws rules, bye-laws, regulations, executive orders, guidelines or instructions
made or issued by the appropriate governments and the local authorities for the welfare and protection of
rights or persons with disabilities,
and take up the matter with the appropriate authorities.
60.Appointment of Commissioners for persons with disabilities.- (1) Every State Government may, by
notification appoint a Commissioner for persons with disabilities for the purpose of this Act.
(2) A person shall not be qualified for appointment as a Commissioner unless he has special knowledge
or practical experience in respect of matters relating to rehabilitation.
(3) The salary and allowances payable to and other terms and conditions of service (including pension,
gratuity and other retirement benefits) of the Commissioner shall be such as may be prescribed by the
State Government.
(4) The State Government shall determine the nature and categories of officers and other employees
required to assist the Commissioner in the discharge of his functions and provide the Commissioner with
such officers and other employees as it thinks fit.
(5) The officers and employees provided to the Commissioner shall discharge their functions under the
general superintendence of the Commissioner.
(6) The salaries and allowances and other conditions of service of officers and employees provided to the
Commissioner shall be such as may be prescribed by the State Government.
61.Powers of the Commissioner.- The Commissioner within the State shall-
(a) coordinate with the departments of the State Government for the programmes and schemes for the
benefit of persons with disabilities;
(b) monitor the utilisation of funds disbursed by the State Government;
(c) take steps to safeguard the rights and facilities made available to persons with disabilities;
(d) submit reports to the State Government on the implementation of the Act at such intervals as that
Government may prescribe and forward a copy thereof to the Chief Commissioner.
62.Commissioner to look into complaints with respect to matters relating to deprivation of rights of
persons with disabilities.- Without prejudice to the provisions of section 61 the Commissioner may of his
own motion or on the application of any aggrieved person or otherwise look into complaints with respect
to matters relating to-
(a) deprivation of rights of persons with disabilities;
(b) non-implementation of laws, rules, bye-laws, regulations, executive orders, guidelines or instructions
made or issued by the appropriate Governments and the local authorities for the welfare and protection of
rights of persons with disabilities.
and take up the matter with the appropriate authorities.
63.Authorities and officers to have certain powers of civil court.- The Chief Commissioner and the
Commissioners shall, for the purpose of discharging their functions under this Act, have the same powers
as are vested in a court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 while trying a suit, in respect of the
following matters namely:-
(a) summoning and enforcing the attendance of witnesses;
(b) requiring the discovery and production of any document;
(c) requisitioning any public record or copy thereof from any court of office;
(d) receiving evidence on affidavits; and
(e) issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or documents.
(2) Every proceeding before the Chief Commissioner and Commissioner shall be a judicial proceeding
within the meaning of sections 193 and 228 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) and the Chief
Commissioner, the Commissioner, the competent authority, shall be deemed to be a civil court for the
purpose of section 195 and Chapter XXVI of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974).
64.Annual report to be prepared by the Chief Commissioner.- (1) The Chief Commissioner shall prepare
in such form and at such time for each financial year as may be prescribed by the Central Government an
annual report giving a full account of his activities during the previous financial year and forward a copy
thereof to the Central Government.
(2) The Central Government shall cause the annual report to be laid before each House of Parliament
along with the recommendations explaining the action taken or proposed to be taken on the
recommendation made therein in so far as they relate to the Central Government and the reasons for
non-acceptance, if any, of any such recommendation or part.
65.Annual reports to be prepared by the Commissioners.- (1) The Commissioner shall prepare in such
form and at such time for each financial year as may be prescribed by the State Government an annual
report giving a full account of his activities during the previous financial year and forward a copy thereof
to the State Government.
(2) The State Government shall cause the annual report to be laid before each State Legislature along
with the recommendations explaining the action taken or proposed to be taken on the recommendation
made therein in so far as they relate to the State Government and the reasons for non-acceptance, if any,
of any such recommendation or part.
CHAPTER XIII
SOCIAL SECURITY
66.Appropriate Governments and local authorities to undertake rehabilitation.- (1) The appropriate
Governments and the local authorities shall within the limits of their economic capacity and development
undertake or cause to be undertaken rehabilitation of all persons with disabilities.
(2) For purpose of sub-section (1), the appropriate Governments and local authorities shall grant financial
assistance to non-governmental organisations.
(3) The appropriate Governments and local authorities while formulating rehabilitation policy shall
consult the non-governmental organisations working for the cause of persons with disabilities.
67.Insurance scheme for employees with disabilities.- (1) The appropriate Government shall by
notification frame an insurance scheme for the benefit of its employees with disabilities.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in this section the appropriate Government may instead of
framing an insurance scheme frame an alternative security scheme for its employees with disabilities.
68.Unemployment allowance.- The appropriate Governments shall within the limits of their economic
capacity and development shall by notification frame a scheme for payment of an unemployment
allowance to persons with disabilities registered with the Special Employment Exchange for more than
two years and who could not be placed in any gainful occupation.
CHAPTER XIV
MISCELLANEOUS
69.Punishment for fraudulently availing any benefit meant for persons with disabilities.- Whoever,
fraudulently avails or attempts to avail, any benefit meant for persons with disabilities shall be
punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years or with fine which may extend
to twenty thousand rupees or with both.
70.Chief Commissioners, Commissioners, officers and other staff to be public servants.- The Chief
Commissioner, the Commissioner and the officers and staff provided to them shall be deemed to be
public servants within the meaning of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).
71.Protection of action taken in good faith.- No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie
against the Central Government, the State Governments or the local authority or any officer of the
Government in respect of anything which is done in good faith or intended to be done in pursuance of
this Act and any rules or orders made thereunder.
72.Act to be in addition to and not in derogation of any other law.- The provisions of this Act, or the
rules made thereunder shall be in addition to, and not in derogation of any other law for the time being in
force or any rules, order or any instructions issued thereunder, enacted or issued for the benefit or
persons with disabilities.
73.Power of appropriate Government to make rules.- (1) The appropriate Government may, by
notification, make rules for carrying out the provisions of this Act.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing powers, such rules may provide
for all or any of the following matters, namely:-
(a) the manner in which a State Government or a Union territory shall be chosen under clause (k) of
sub-section (2) of section 3;
(b) allowances which members shall receive under sub-section (7) of section 4;
(c) rules of procedure which the Central Coordination Committee shall observe in regard to the
transaction of business in its meetings under section 7;
(d) such other functions which the Central Coordination Committee may perform under clause (h) of
sub-section (2) of section 8;
(e) the manner in which a State Government or a Union territory shall be chosen under clause (h) of
sub-section (2) of section 9;
(f) the allowances which the Members shall receive under sub-section (3) of section 9;
(g) rules of procedure which the Central Executive Committee shall observe in regard to transaction of
business at its meetings under section 11;
(h) the manner and purposes for which a person may be associated under sub-section (1) of section 12;
(i) fees and allowances which a person associated with the Central Executive Committee shall receive
under sub-section (3) of section 12;
(j) allowances which members shall receive under sub-section (7) of section 14;
(k) rules of procedure which a State Coordination Committee shall observe in regard to transaction of
business in its meetings under section 17;
(l) such other functions which a State Coordination Committee may perform under clause (g) of
sub-section (2) of section 18;
(m) the allowances which Members shall receive under sub-section (3) of section 19;
(n) rules of procedure which a State Executive Committee shall observe in regard to transaction of
business at its meetings under section 21;
(o) the manner and purposes for which a person may be associated under sub-section (l) of section 22;
(p) fees and allowances which a person associated with the State Executive Committee may receive
under sub-section (3) of section 22;
(q) information or return which the employer in every establishment should furnish and the Special
Employment Exchange to which such information or return shall be furnished under sub-section (1) of
section 34;
(r) the form and the manner in which record shall be maintained by an employer under sub-section (1) of
section 37;
(s) the form and manner in which an application shall be made under sub-section (1) of section 52;
(t) the manner in which an order of refusal shall be communicated under sub-section (2) of section 52;
(u) facilities or standards required to be provided or maintained under sub-section (3) of section 53;
(v) the period for which a certificate of registration shall be valid under clause (a) of sub-section (4) of
section 52;
(w) the form in which and conditions subject to which a certificate of registration shall be granted under
clause (c) of sub-section (4) of section 52;
(x) period within which an appeal shall lie under sub-section (1) of section 54;
(y) the manner in which an institution for persons with severe disabilities shall be maintained and
conditions which have to be satisfied under sub-section (3) of section 56;
(z) the salary, allowances and other terms and conditions of service of the Chief Commissioner under
sub-section (3) of section 57;
(za) the salary, allowances and other conditions of service of officers and employees under sub-section
(6) of section 57;
(zb) intervals at which the Chief Commissioner shall report to the Central Government under clause (d)
of section 58;
(zc) the salary, allowances and other terms and conditions of service of commissioner under sub -section
(3) of section 60;
(zd) the salary, allowances and other conditions of service of officers and employees under sub-section
(6) of section 60;
(ze) intervals within which the Commissioner shall report to the State Government under clause (d) of
section 61;
(zf) the form and time in which annual report shall be prepared under sub-section (1) of section 64;
(zg) the form and time in which annual report shall be prepared under sub-section (l) of section 65;
(zh) any other matter which is required to be or may be prescribed.
(3) Every notification made by the Central Government under the proviso to section 33 proviso to
sub-section (2) of section 47, every scheme framed by it under section 27, section 30, sub-section (1) of
section 38, section 42, section 43,section 67, section 68 and every rule made by it under sub-section (1),
shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made, before each House of Parliament, while it is in session
for a total period of thirty days which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive
sessions, and if, before the expire of the session immediately following the session or successive sessions
aforesaid, both Houses agree in making any modification in the rule, notification or scheme, both Houses
agree that the rule, notification or scheme should not be made the rule, notification or scheme shall
thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so, however, that
any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of anything previously
done under that rule, notification or scheme, as the case may be.
(4) Every notification made by the State Government under the proviso to section 33, proviso to
sub-section (2)of section 47, every scheme made by it under section 27, section 30, sub-section (1) of
section 38, section 42, section 43, section 67, section 68 and every rule made by it under sub-section (1)
shall be laid as soon as may be after it is made, before each House of State Legislature, where it consists
of two Houses or where such legislature consists of one House before that House.
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Friday, May 21, 2010
HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE DAYS AND THE MONTHS
Origin of the Days
The names of the days of the week in Spanish and English don't seem very much alike. But in fact they have similar origins. Surprisingly, however, the day with the names in the two languages sounding the most alike — Saturday in English and sábado in Spanish — has names that aren't connected.
The etymology (word history) of most of the days the week are linked to Roman mythology. The Romans saw a connection between their gods and the changing face of the nighttime sky, so it became natural to use their gods' names for the planets — the ones they were able to track in the sky were Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Those five planets plus the moon and sun made seven major astronomical bodies, so when the seven-day week was imported from Mesopotamia early in the fourth century it was a natural to use those astronomical names for the days of the week.
Eventually, the first day of the week was named after the sun, followed by the moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. The names of the week were adopted with little change throughout most of the Roman Empire and even beyond. In only a few cases were changes made.
In Spanish, the five weekdays all retained their planetary names. Those are the five days whose names end in -es, a shortening of the Latin word for "day," dies. Thus lunes comes from the word for moon (luna), and the planetary connection is also apparent with martes (Mars, Tuesday), miércoles (Mercury, Wednesday) and viernes (Venus, Friday).
The connection with Jupiter is not quite so apparent with jueves, the word for Thursday, until you remember that "Jovian" is the adjective form of Jupiter in English, coming from a Latin root.
In Spanish, that leaves the words for Saturday and Sunday that weren't adopted using the Roman naming pattern. Domingo, the word for Sunday, comes from a Latin word meaning "Lord's day." And sábado, the word for Saturday, comes from the Hebrew word Sabbath, meaning a day of rest (in Jewish and Christian tradition, God rested on the seventh day of creation).
In English, the pattern is similar, but with a key difference. The connections between Sunday and the sun, between Monday and the moon, and between Saturn and Saturday should be obvious. The difference with the other days is that English is a Germanic language, and the names of equivalent Germanic gods were substituted for the Roman gods.
Mars, for example, was the god of war, while the Germanic god of war was Tiu, whose name became part of Tuesday. Wednesday is a modification of Woden's Day; Woden was a god who was swift like Mercury. You may have heard of the Norse god Thor; a variation of that name was the basis for naming Thursday. Finally, Frigg, after whom Friday was named, was like Venus a goddess of love.
Origin of the Months
The original Roman year had 10 named months Martius "March", Aprilis "April", Maius "May", Junius "June", Quintilis "July", Sextilis "August", September "September", October "October", November "November", December "December", and probably two unnamed months in the dead of winter when not much happened in agriculture. The year began with Martius "March". Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome circa 700 BC, added the two months Januarius "January" and Februarius "February". He also moved the beginning of the year from Marius to Januarius and changed the number of days in several months to be odd, a lucky number. After Februarius there was occasionally an additional month of Intercalaris "intercalendar". This is the origin of the leap-year day being in February. In 46 BC, Julius Caesar reformed the Roman calendar (hence the Julian calendar) changing the number of days in many months and removing Intercalaris.
January -- Janus’s month
Middle English Januarie
Latin Januarius "of Janus"
Latin Janu(s) "Janus" + -arius "ary (pertaining to)"
Latin Januarius mensis "month of Janus"
Janus is the Roman god of gates and doorways, depicted with two faces looking in opposite directions. His festival month is January.
Januarius had 29 days, until Julius when it became 31 days long.
February -- month of Februa
Middle English Februarius
Latin Februarius "of Februa"
Latin Februa(s) "Februa" + -arius "ary (pertaining to)"
Latin Februarius mensis "month of Februa"
Latin dies februatus "day of purification"
Februarius had 28 days, until circa 450 BC when it had 23 or 24 days on some of every second year, until Julius when it had 29 days on every fourth year and 28 days otherwise.
Februa is the Roman festival of purification, held on February fifteenth. It is possibly of Sabine origin.
March -- Mars’ month
Middle English March(e)
Anglo-French March(e)
Old English Martius
Latin Martius "of Mars"
Latin Marti(s) "Mars" + -us (adj. suffix)
Latin Martius mensis "month of Mars"
Martius has always had 31 days.
March was the original beginning of the year, and the time for the resumption of war.
Mars is the Roman god of war. He is identified with the Greek god
Ares.
April -- Aphrodite’s month
Old English April(is)
Latin Aprilis
Etruscan Apru
Greek Aphro, short for Aphrodite.
Aprilis had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 30 days long.
Aphrodite is the Greek goddess of love and beauty. She is identified with the Roman goddess Venus.
May -- Maia’s month
Old French Mai
Old English Maius
Latin Maius "of Maia"
Latin Maius mensis "month of Maia"
Maius has always had 31 days.
Maia (meaning "the great one") is the Italic goddess of spring, the daughter of Faunus, and wife of Vulcan.
June -- Juno’s month
Middle English jun(e)
Old French juin
Old English junius
Latin Junius "of Juno"
Latin Junius mensis "month of Juno"
Junius had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 30 days long.
Juno is the principle goddess of the Roman Pantheon. She is the goddess of marriage and the well-being of women. She is the wife and sister of Jupiter. She is identified with the Greek goddess
Hera.
July -- Julius Caesar’s month
Middle English Julie
Latin Julius "Julius"
Latin Julius mensis "month of Julius"
Latin quintilis mensis "fifth month"
Quintilis (and later Julius) has always had 31 days.
Julius Caesar reformed the Roman calendar (hence the Julian calendar) in 46 BC. In the process, he renamed this month after himself.
August -- Augustus Caesar’s month
Latin Augustus "Augustus"
Latin Augustus mensis "month of Augustus"
Latin sextilis mensis "sixth month"
Sextilis had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 31 days long.
Augustus Caesar clarified and completed the calendar reform of Julius Caesar. In the process, he also renamed this month after himself.
September -- the seventh month
Middle English septembre
Latin September
Latin septem "seven" + -ber (adj. suffix)
Latin september mensis "seventh month"
September had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 30 days long.
October -- the eighth month
Middle English octobre
Latin October
Latin octo "eight" + -ber (adj. suffix)
Latin october mensis "eighth month"
October has always had 31 days.
November -- the nineth month
Middle English Novembre
Latin November
Latin Novembris mensis "nineth month"
Novembris had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 30 dayslong.
December -- the 10th month
Middle English decembre
Old French decembre
Latin december "tenth month"
Latin decem "ten" + -ber (adj. suffix)
December had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 31 days long.
The names of the days of the week in Spanish and English don't seem very much alike. But in fact they have similar origins. Surprisingly, however, the day with the names in the two languages sounding the most alike — Saturday in English and sábado in Spanish — has names that aren't connected.
The etymology (word history) of most of the days the week are linked to Roman mythology. The Romans saw a connection between their gods and the changing face of the nighttime sky, so it became natural to use their gods' names for the planets — the ones they were able to track in the sky were Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Those five planets plus the moon and sun made seven major astronomical bodies, so when the seven-day week was imported from Mesopotamia early in the fourth century it was a natural to use those astronomical names for the days of the week.
Eventually, the first day of the week was named after the sun, followed by the moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. The names of the week were adopted with little change throughout most of the Roman Empire and even beyond. In only a few cases were changes made.
In Spanish, the five weekdays all retained their planetary names. Those are the five days whose names end in -es, a shortening of the Latin word for "day," dies. Thus lunes comes from the word for moon (luna), and the planetary connection is also apparent with martes (Mars, Tuesday), miércoles (Mercury, Wednesday) and viernes (Venus, Friday).
The connection with Jupiter is not quite so apparent with jueves, the word for Thursday, until you remember that "Jovian" is the adjective form of Jupiter in English, coming from a Latin root.
In Spanish, that leaves the words for Saturday and Sunday that weren't adopted using the Roman naming pattern. Domingo, the word for Sunday, comes from a Latin word meaning "Lord's day." And sábado, the word for Saturday, comes from the Hebrew word Sabbath, meaning a day of rest (in Jewish and Christian tradition, God rested on the seventh day of creation).
In English, the pattern is similar, but with a key difference. The connections between Sunday and the sun, between Monday and the moon, and between Saturn and Saturday should be obvious. The difference with the other days is that English is a Germanic language, and the names of equivalent Germanic gods were substituted for the Roman gods.
Mars, for example, was the god of war, while the Germanic god of war was Tiu, whose name became part of Tuesday. Wednesday is a modification of Woden's Day; Woden was a god who was swift like Mercury. You may have heard of the Norse god Thor; a variation of that name was the basis for naming Thursday. Finally, Frigg, after whom Friday was named, was like Venus a goddess of love.
Origin of the Months
The original Roman year had 10 named months Martius "March", Aprilis "April", Maius "May", Junius "June", Quintilis "July", Sextilis "August", September "September", October "October", November "November", December "December", and probably two unnamed months in the dead of winter when not much happened in agriculture. The year began with Martius "March". Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome circa 700 BC, added the two months Januarius "January" and Februarius "February". He also moved the beginning of the year from Marius to Januarius and changed the number of days in several months to be odd, a lucky number. After Februarius there was occasionally an additional month of Intercalaris "intercalendar". This is the origin of the leap-year day being in February. In 46 BC, Julius Caesar reformed the Roman calendar (hence the Julian calendar) changing the number of days in many months and removing Intercalaris.
January -- Janus’s month
Middle English Januarie
Latin Januarius "of Janus"
Latin Janu(s) "Janus" + -arius "ary (pertaining to)"
Latin Januarius mensis "month of Janus"
Janus is the Roman god of gates and doorways, depicted with two faces looking in opposite directions. His festival month is January.
Januarius had 29 days, until Julius when it became 31 days long.
February -- month of Februa
Middle English Februarius
Latin Februarius "of Februa"
Latin Februa(s) "Februa" + -arius "ary (pertaining to)"
Latin Februarius mensis "month of Februa"
Latin dies februatus "day of purification"
Februarius had 28 days, until circa 450 BC when it had 23 or 24 days on some of every second year, until Julius when it had 29 days on every fourth year and 28 days otherwise.
Februa is the Roman festival of purification, held on February fifteenth. It is possibly of Sabine origin.
March -- Mars’ month
Middle English March(e)
Anglo-French March(e)
Old English Martius
Latin Martius "of Mars"
Latin Marti(s) "Mars" + -us (adj. suffix)
Latin Martius mensis "month of Mars"
Martius has always had 31 days.
March was the original beginning of the year, and the time for the resumption of war.
Mars is the Roman god of war. He is identified with the Greek god
Ares.
April -- Aphrodite’s month
Old English April(is)
Latin Aprilis
Etruscan Apru
Greek Aphro, short for Aphrodite.
Aprilis had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 30 days long.
Aphrodite is the Greek goddess of love and beauty. She is identified with the Roman goddess Venus.
May -- Maia’s month
Old French Mai
Old English Maius
Latin Maius "of Maia"
Latin Maius mensis "month of Maia"
Maius has always had 31 days.
Maia (meaning "the great one") is the Italic goddess of spring, the daughter of Faunus, and wife of Vulcan.
June -- Juno’s month
Middle English jun(e)
Old French juin
Old English junius
Latin Junius "of Juno"
Latin Junius mensis "month of Juno"
Junius had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 30 days long.
Juno is the principle goddess of the Roman Pantheon. She is the goddess of marriage and the well-being of women. She is the wife and sister of Jupiter. She is identified with the Greek goddess
Hera.
July -- Julius Caesar’s month
Middle English Julie
Latin Julius "Julius"
Latin Julius mensis "month of Julius"
Latin quintilis mensis "fifth month"
Quintilis (and later Julius) has always had 31 days.
Julius Caesar reformed the Roman calendar (hence the Julian calendar) in 46 BC. In the process, he renamed this month after himself.
August -- Augustus Caesar’s month
Latin Augustus "Augustus"
Latin Augustus mensis "month of Augustus"
Latin sextilis mensis "sixth month"
Sextilis had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 31 days long.
Augustus Caesar clarified and completed the calendar reform of Julius Caesar. In the process, he also renamed this month after himself.
September -- the seventh month
Middle English septembre
Latin September
Latin septem "seven" + -ber (adj. suffix)
Latin september mensis "seventh month"
September had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 30 days long.
October -- the eighth month
Middle English octobre
Latin October
Latin octo "eight" + -ber (adj. suffix)
Latin october mensis "eighth month"
October has always had 31 days.
November -- the nineth month
Middle English Novembre
Latin November
Latin Novembris mensis "nineth month"
Novembris had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 30 dayslong.
December -- the 10th month
Middle English decembre
Old French decembre
Latin december "tenth month"
Latin decem "ten" + -ber (adj. suffix)
December had 30 days, until Numa when it had 29 days, until Julius when it became 31 days long.
Tuesday, May 18, 2010
MOBILE PHONES COMPETIBLE WITH NUANCE TALKS (SCREEN READER)
Nuance TALKS for Series 60
Nokia 3230
Nokia 3250
Nokia 5320 XpressMusic
Nokia 5500
Nokia 5700
Nokia 6110 Navigator
Nokia 6120C
Nokia 6121C
Nokia 6124 Classic
Nokia 6210 Navigator
Nokia 6220 Classic
Nokia 6260
Nokia 6290
Nokia 6600 (except 6600 Fold or 6600 Slide)
Nokia 6620
Nokia 6630
Nokia 6650
Nokia 6670
Nokia 6680
Nokia 6681
Nokia 6682
Nokia 6710 Navigator
Nokia 6720 classic
Nokia 6730 classic
Nokia 6790 Surge / slide
Nokia 7610 (except 7610 Supernova)
Nokia E50
Nokia E51
Nokia E52
Nokia E60
Nokia E61
Nokia E61i
Nokia E62
Nokia E65
Nokia E63
Nokia E66
Nokia E70
Nokia E71
Nokia E71x
Nokia E75
Nokia E90
Nokia N70
Nokia N71
Nokia N72
Nokia N73
Nokia N75
Nokia N76
Nokia N78
Nokia N79
Nokia N80
Nokia N81/ N81 8GB
Nokia N82
Nokia N85
Nokia N86
Nokia N90
Nokia N91
Nokia N95 / N95 8GB
Nokia N96
Samsung SGH-D720
Samsung SGH-D730
Nuance TALKS for Series 80
Nokia 9210
Nokia 9210i
Nokia 9290
Nokia 9300
Nokia 9500
For further information, log on to the link:
http://www.nuance.com/talks
Nokia 3230
Nokia 3250
Nokia 5320 XpressMusic
Nokia 5500
Nokia 5700
Nokia 6110 Navigator
Nokia 6120C
Nokia 6121C
Nokia 6124 Classic
Nokia 6210 Navigator
Nokia 6220 Classic
Nokia 6260
Nokia 6290
Nokia 6600 (except 6600 Fold or 6600 Slide)
Nokia 6620
Nokia 6630
Nokia 6650
Nokia 6670
Nokia 6680
Nokia 6681
Nokia 6682
Nokia 6710 Navigator
Nokia 6720 classic
Nokia 6730 classic
Nokia 6790 Surge / slide
Nokia 7610 (except 7610 Supernova)
Nokia E50
Nokia E51
Nokia E52
Nokia E60
Nokia E61
Nokia E61i
Nokia E62
Nokia E65
Nokia E63
Nokia E66
Nokia E70
Nokia E71
Nokia E71x
Nokia E75
Nokia E90
Nokia N70
Nokia N71
Nokia N72
Nokia N73
Nokia N75
Nokia N76
Nokia N78
Nokia N79
Nokia N80
Nokia N81/ N81 8GB
Nokia N82
Nokia N85
Nokia N86
Nokia N90
Nokia N91
Nokia N95 / N95 8GB
Nokia N96
Samsung SGH-D720
Samsung SGH-D730
Nuance TALKS for Series 80
Nokia 9210
Nokia 9210i
Nokia 9290
Nokia 9300
Nokia 9500
For further information, log on to the link:
http://www.nuance.com/talks
Saturday, May 15, 2010
Gita Saar
The teachings of Lord Krishna have been written down in a book famously known as 'Bhagwad Gita'. It is the holy book of Hindus. It is to Hindus, what Bible
is to Christians or what the holy Quran is to Muslims. Since the book is quite big and extensive, sometimes it becomes difficult for a person to read at
a stretch. Geeta Saar is the gist of the main teachings of Lord Krishna. It contains the crux of the Holy Gita.
Lord questions everyone over various issues and asks them to give up the illusionary world. Bhagwan Krishna says, the only way to achieve life long happiness
is to surrender to him.
list of 7 items
• Why do you worry unnecessarily? What are you afraid of? Who can kill destroy you? A soul is never born, so it never dies.
• Whatever happened in the past, happened for the best; whatever is happening, is happening for the best; whatever will happen in future, will happen for
the best. Do not repent the past, do not worry for future, concentrate on your present.
• What did you own, that makes you cry on losing? What did you bring, that you fear losing? What did you give birth to, that you fear its destruction? You
didn't bring anything. Whatever one takes, one must return it to God. Everyone came empty handed and will therefore die, empty handed.
• Whatever belongs to you today, belonged to someone else yesterday and it will belong to some one else tomorrow. Don't be illusioned by maya. Maya is the
root cause of all pain and misery.
• Change is the rule of nature. What one understands, as death is actually life itself. One moment you are the owner of crores and in the very next moment
you become a pauper.
• Your body doesn't belong to you and vice versa. Body is composed of five elements- Fire, Water, Air, Earth and Sky; one day it will perish in these elements.
• Offer yourself to the Almighty Lord. This is the best support. One who knows this unconditional support gains freedom from fear, worry and despair.
list end
is to Christians or what the holy Quran is to Muslims. Since the book is quite big and extensive, sometimes it becomes difficult for a person to read at
a stretch. Geeta Saar is the gist of the main teachings of Lord Krishna. It contains the crux of the Holy Gita.
Lord questions everyone over various issues and asks them to give up the illusionary world. Bhagwan Krishna says, the only way to achieve life long happiness
is to surrender to him.
list of 7 items
• Why do you worry unnecessarily? What are you afraid of? Who can kill destroy you? A soul is never born, so it never dies.
• Whatever happened in the past, happened for the best; whatever is happening, is happening for the best; whatever will happen in future, will happen for
the best. Do not repent the past, do not worry for future, concentrate on your present.
• What did you own, that makes you cry on losing? What did you bring, that you fear losing? What did you give birth to, that you fear its destruction? You
didn't bring anything. Whatever one takes, one must return it to God. Everyone came empty handed and will therefore die, empty handed.
• Whatever belongs to you today, belonged to someone else yesterday and it will belong to some one else tomorrow. Don't be illusioned by maya. Maya is the
root cause of all pain and misery.
• Change is the rule of nature. What one understands, as death is actually life itself. One moment you are the owner of crores and in the very next moment
you become a pauper.
• Your body doesn't belong to you and vice versa. Body is composed of five elements- Fire, Water, Air, Earth and Sky; one day it will perish in these elements.
• Offer yourself to the Almighty Lord. This is the best support. One who knows this unconditional support gains freedom from fear, worry and despair.
list end
Thursday, May 13, 2010
Constitution of Committee for Replacement of Persons with Disabilities Act 1995
Constitution of a Committee to draft a new legislation to replace the
Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and
Full Participation) Act, 1995. ("PwD Act").
*F.No. 16-38/2006-DD.III
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment*
*Shastri Bhavan, New Delhi
Date: 30/04/2010*
Office Memorandum
Sub:Constitution of a Committee to draft a new legislation to replace the
Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and
Full Participation) Act, 1995. ("PwD Act").
The PwD Act, 1995, has now been in force for over 14 years. Keeping in view
the experience of its working over this period, and the need to harmonize
its provisions with those of the United Nations Convention on the Rights for
Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), 2008, and of other legislations on the
subject, extensive consultations with various stakeholders including State
Governments, NGOs and experts have been carried out. The Central
Coordination Committee considered the matter in its meeting dated
21.07.2009, after which a comprehensive draft of amendments necessary in the
Act was formulated and circulated to State Governments/Union Territories and
concerned Union Ministries in September, 2009, for comments. The draft was
also posted on the Ministry�s website seeking comments from the public.
In response to the above, comments have been received from several State
Governments, Central Ministries, Non- Government Organizations and others.
2. A Committee is hereby constituted to examine the above responses and
draft a new legislation to replace the Persons with Disabilities (Equal
Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.
3. Composition of the above Committee shall be as follows:-
Chairperson
Dr. (Mrs.) Sudha Kaul
Members
*I. Experts/ NGO representatives*
1. Shri Bhushan Punani, Executive Director, Blind People's Association,
Ahmedabad
2. Dr. Vikas Amte, Secretary & Chief Functionary, Maharogi Sewa Samiti,
Chandrapur, Maharashtra
3. Smt. Jayashree Ravindran, Managing Trustee, Ability Foundation,
Chennai
4. Dr. G.N.Karna, President, Society for Disability and Rehabilitation
Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
5. Dr. L. Govinda Rao, Former Director, NIMH, Secunderabad, Andhra
Pradesh
6. A nominee of Director, NIMHANS, not below the rank of a Professor
7. Ms. Merry Barua, Director, Action for Autism, New Delhi
8. Ms. G. Syamala, Executive Director, Action for Ability Development and
Inclusion (AADI), New Delhi
9. ix. Shri. Rajive Raturi, Director, Human Rights Law Network (DRI), New
Delhi
10. Shri. Rajive Raturi, Director, Human Rights Law Network (DRI), New
Delhi
*II. Principal Secretaries In-charge of Disability in the State Governments-
*
1. Assam
2. Tamil Nadu
3. Rajasthan
4. Maharashtra
5. West Bengal
*III. Representatives of the following Central Ministries/ Departments not
below the rank of a Joint Secretary-*
1. M/o Health and Family Welfare
2. M/o Urban Development
3. Dept. of School Education and Literacy (M/o HRD)
4. Dept. of Personnel and Training
5. Planning Commission
*IV. A senior representative nominated by the Head of the National Institute
of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP)*
*V. Members, ex officio*
1. Chief Commissioner of Persons with Disabilities
2. Chairperson, National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities
3. Chairman, Rehabilitation Council of India
4. Financial Advisor, M/o SJ & E, or his nominee
*VI. Member Secretary*
Joint Secretary (Disability Bureau), M/o SJ & E
4. The Committee may invite other experts, and representatives of other
Ministries/ State Governments/ Autonomous Bodies to participate in its
deliberations, as Special Invitees.
5. While drafting the new legislation, the Committee shall keep the
following in view:-
1. Provisions of the Constitution and other laws, and the need to avoid
duplication of provisions already existing in them,
2. Chairperson, National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities
3. Financial, logistical and administrative feasibility of the proposed
provisions.
6. The Committee will also make an assessment of the financial implications
� recurring and non-recurring � of the draft legislation prepared by it for
the (i) Central Government, (ii) State Governments, (iii) Local Authorities,
and (iv) others on whom obligations may be cast.
7. The Committee will submit draft of the new legislation, as mentioned in
para 2 above, by 31st August, 2010, together with the following-
1. A report on the process adopted by it in drafting the legislation, as
also explaining the rationale for its salient provisions, and
2. A note on the financial implications of the recommended draft, as
mentioned in para 6 above.
8. TA/DA, as admissible under Central Government rules, will be paid to the
non official members of the Committee for attending its meetings.
9.Secretarial assistance to the Committee will be provided by Pandit
Deendayal Upadhyay Institute for the Physically Handicapped, New Delhi, and
expenses on the Committee�s work will also be borne by the said Institute.
*Yours Faithfully
(Sunil Kumar Pattanayak)
Director-Disability*
Copy to:
1. Dr. (Mrs.) Sudha Kaul, Executive Director, Indian Institute of
Cerebral Palsy, Kolkata
2. Shri Bhushan Punani, Executive Director, Blind People's Association,
Jagdish Patel Chowk, Surdas Marg, Vastrapur, Ahmedabad-380015
3. Dr. Vikas Amte, Maharogi Sewa Samiti At and PO Anandwan, via Waroa,
District Chandrapur, Maharashtra 442914
4. Smt. Jayashree Ravindran, Managing Trustee, Ability Foundation, 28,
Second Cross Street, Gandhi Nagar, Adyar, Chennai - 600 020, Tamil Nadu.
India
5. Dr. G.N.Karna, President, Society for Disability and Rehabilitation
Studies, JNU, New Delhi. Head Office: B-285, Vasant Kunj Enclave, New
Delhi-110070, India
6. Dr. L. Govinda Rao, Kameswari Kuteer, H.No.8-7-193/13/2, Wesley
Teachers Colony, Road No.3, Old Bowenpally, Secunderabad - 500 011
7. Director, NIMHANS, Bangalore-560029
8. Ms. Merry Barua, Director, Action for Autism, Pocket 7&8, Jasola
Vihar, New Delhi-110025
9. Ms. G. Syamala, Executive Director AADI - Action for Ability
Development and Inclusion, 2, Balbir Saxena Marg, Hauz Khas, New
Delhi-110016
10. Shri. Rajive Raturi, Director, Human Rights Law Network (DRI), 576,
Masjid Road, Jungpura, Delhi-110 014
11. Dr. Uma Tuli, Founder Managing Secretary, Amar Jyoti Rehabilitation &
Research Centre, Karkardooma, Vikas Marg, Delhi -110092
12. Principal Secretary In-charge of Disability, Governments of Assam
13. Principal Secretary In-charge of Disability, Governments of Tamil
Nadu
14. Principal Secretary In-charge of Disability, Governments of Rajasthan
15. Principal Secretary In-charge of Disability, Governments of
Maharashtra
16. Principal Secretary In-charge of Disability, Governments of West
Bengal
17. Secretary, M/o Health and Family Welfare
18. Secretary, M/o Urban Development
19. Secretary, Dept. of School Education and Literacy (M/o HRD)
20. Secretary, Dept. of Personnel and Training
21. Secretary, Planning Commission
22. Director, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP)
23. Chief Commissioner of Persons with Disabilities
24. Chairperson, National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities
25. Chairman, Rehabilitation Council of India
26. Financial Advisor, M/o SJ & E
27. Joint Secretary (Disability), M/o SJ & E
28. Director, Pt. DDU Institute for the Physically Handicapped, New Delhi
Copy for information to-
1. PPS to Secretary, M/o Social Justice & Empowerment
2. PS to Additional Secretary, M/o Social Justice & Empowerment
Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and
Full Participation) Act, 1995. ("PwD Act").
*F.No. 16-38/2006-DD.III
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment*
*Shastri Bhavan, New Delhi
Date: 30/04/2010*
Office Memorandum
Sub:Constitution of a Committee to draft a new legislation to replace the
Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and
Full Participation) Act, 1995. ("PwD Act").
The PwD Act, 1995, has now been in force for over 14 years. Keeping in view
the experience of its working over this period, and the need to harmonize
its provisions with those of the United Nations Convention on the Rights for
Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), 2008, and of other legislations on the
subject, extensive consultations with various stakeholders including State
Governments, NGOs and experts have been carried out. The Central
Coordination Committee considered the matter in its meeting dated
21.07.2009, after which a comprehensive draft of amendments necessary in the
Act was formulated and circulated to State Governments/Union Territories and
concerned Union Ministries in September, 2009, for comments. The draft was
also posted on the Ministry�s website seeking comments from the public.
In response to the above, comments have been received from several State
Governments, Central Ministries, Non- Government Organizations and others.
2. A Committee is hereby constituted to examine the above responses and
draft a new legislation to replace the Persons with Disabilities (Equal
Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.
3. Composition of the above Committee shall be as follows:-
Chairperson
Dr. (Mrs.) Sudha Kaul
Members
*I. Experts/ NGO representatives*
1. Shri Bhushan Punani, Executive Director, Blind People's Association,
Ahmedabad
2. Dr. Vikas Amte, Secretary & Chief Functionary, Maharogi Sewa Samiti,
Chandrapur, Maharashtra
3. Smt. Jayashree Ravindran, Managing Trustee, Ability Foundation,
Chennai
4. Dr. G.N.Karna, President, Society for Disability and Rehabilitation
Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
5. Dr. L. Govinda Rao, Former Director, NIMH, Secunderabad, Andhra
Pradesh
6. A nominee of Director, NIMHANS, not below the rank of a Professor
7. Ms. Merry Barua, Director, Action for Autism, New Delhi
8. Ms. G. Syamala, Executive Director, Action for Ability Development and
Inclusion (AADI), New Delhi
9. ix. Shri. Rajive Raturi, Director, Human Rights Law Network (DRI), New
Delhi
10. Shri. Rajive Raturi, Director, Human Rights Law Network (DRI), New
Delhi
*II. Principal Secretaries In-charge of Disability in the State Governments-
*
1. Assam
2. Tamil Nadu
3. Rajasthan
4. Maharashtra
5. West Bengal
*III. Representatives of the following Central Ministries/ Departments not
below the rank of a Joint Secretary-*
1. M/o Health and Family Welfare
2. M/o Urban Development
3. Dept. of School Education and Literacy (M/o HRD)
4. Dept. of Personnel and Training
5. Planning Commission
*IV. A senior representative nominated by the Head of the National Institute
of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP)*
*V. Members, ex officio*
1. Chief Commissioner of Persons with Disabilities
2. Chairperson, National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities
3. Chairman, Rehabilitation Council of India
4. Financial Advisor, M/o SJ & E, or his nominee
*VI. Member Secretary*
Joint Secretary (Disability Bureau), M/o SJ & E
4. The Committee may invite other experts, and representatives of other
Ministries/ State Governments/ Autonomous Bodies to participate in its
deliberations, as Special Invitees.
5. While drafting the new legislation, the Committee shall keep the
following in view:-
1. Provisions of the Constitution and other laws, and the need to avoid
duplication of provisions already existing in them,
2. Chairperson, National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities
3. Financial, logistical and administrative feasibility of the proposed
provisions.
6. The Committee will also make an assessment of the financial implications
� recurring and non-recurring � of the draft legislation prepared by it for
the (i) Central Government, (ii) State Governments, (iii) Local Authorities,
and (iv) others on whom obligations may be cast.
7. The Committee will submit draft of the new legislation, as mentioned in
para 2 above, by 31st August, 2010, together with the following-
1. A report on the process adopted by it in drafting the legislation, as
also explaining the rationale for its salient provisions, and
2. A note on the financial implications of the recommended draft, as
mentioned in para 6 above.
8. TA/DA, as admissible under Central Government rules, will be paid to the
non official members of the Committee for attending its meetings.
9.Secretarial assistance to the Committee will be provided by Pandit
Deendayal Upadhyay Institute for the Physically Handicapped, New Delhi, and
expenses on the Committee�s work will also be borne by the said Institute.
*Yours Faithfully
(Sunil Kumar Pattanayak)
Director-Disability*
Copy to:
1. Dr. (Mrs.) Sudha Kaul, Executive Director, Indian Institute of
Cerebral Palsy, Kolkata
2. Shri Bhushan Punani, Executive Director, Blind People's Association,
Jagdish Patel Chowk, Surdas Marg, Vastrapur, Ahmedabad-380015
3. Dr. Vikas Amte, Maharogi Sewa Samiti At and PO Anandwan, via Waroa,
District Chandrapur, Maharashtra 442914
4. Smt. Jayashree Ravindran, Managing Trustee, Ability Foundation, 28,
Second Cross Street, Gandhi Nagar, Adyar, Chennai - 600 020, Tamil Nadu.
India
5. Dr. G.N.Karna, President, Society for Disability and Rehabilitation
Studies, JNU, New Delhi. Head Office: B-285, Vasant Kunj Enclave, New
Delhi-110070, India
6. Dr. L. Govinda Rao, Kameswari Kuteer, H.No.8-7-193/13/2, Wesley
Teachers Colony, Road No.3, Old Bowenpally, Secunderabad - 500 011
7. Director, NIMHANS, Bangalore-560029
8. Ms. Merry Barua, Director, Action for Autism, Pocket 7&8, Jasola
Vihar, New Delhi-110025
9. Ms. G. Syamala, Executive Director AADI - Action for Ability
Development and Inclusion, 2, Balbir Saxena Marg, Hauz Khas, New
Delhi-110016
10. Shri. Rajive Raturi, Director, Human Rights Law Network (DRI), 576,
Masjid Road, Jungpura, Delhi-110 014
11. Dr. Uma Tuli, Founder Managing Secretary, Amar Jyoti Rehabilitation &
Research Centre, Karkardooma, Vikas Marg, Delhi -110092
12. Principal Secretary In-charge of Disability, Governments of Assam
13. Principal Secretary In-charge of Disability, Governments of Tamil
Nadu
14. Principal Secretary In-charge of Disability, Governments of Rajasthan
15. Principal Secretary In-charge of Disability, Governments of
Maharashtra
16. Principal Secretary In-charge of Disability, Governments of West
Bengal
17. Secretary, M/o Health and Family Welfare
18. Secretary, M/o Urban Development
19. Secretary, Dept. of School Education and Literacy (M/o HRD)
20. Secretary, Dept. of Personnel and Training
21. Secretary, Planning Commission
22. Director, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP)
23. Chief Commissioner of Persons with Disabilities
24. Chairperson, National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities
25. Chairman, Rehabilitation Council of India
26. Financial Advisor, M/o SJ & E
27. Joint Secretary (Disability), M/o SJ & E
28. Director, Pt. DDU Institute for the Physically Handicapped, New Delhi
Copy for information to-
1. PPS to Secretary, M/o Social Justice & Empowerment
2. PS to Additional Secretary, M/o Social Justice & Empowerment
Tuesday, May 11, 2010
Computer Terms
vanity domain:
Recognizable and memorable domain names that include words or combinations of words that relate to the person or organization that owns the domain. Most domain names are vanity domains.
cache miss:
A request for data not found in cache memory. When this occurs, the computer must search the main memory to find the data.
quiesce:
To render a computer, application, or other resource inactive without removing the item from the system. In this way, technicians can reactivate the resource much more quickly than they could if they had to reinstall it.
printer engine:
The part of the printer that determines the resolution, speed, and overall quality of the printing. Most engines are replaceable self-contained units; printers from different manufacturers often use the same engine.
word spamming:
Repeating a word on a Web page in an attempt to increase its relevancy when people perform a Web search. This attempt is usually in vain, as search engines typically locate information using methods other than a simple word search.
warm link:
The ability to update data, such as a number in a spreadsheet cell, when it is being displayed in a different application, such as a chart or a graph. This lets the user change the data in the originating application and see the results in other applications that use the same data.
speed dial:
Speed dial refers to the ability of a telephone or cell phone to store a given telephone number in its internal memory. With a speed dial-enabled phone, a user can assign frequently dialed numbers to a short button sequence or to dedicated speed dial buttons and then press these buttons to quickly call that number.
physical topology:
Physical topology is the placement of hardware on a LAN (local-area network). This is where the connections are set up and the location of cables, switches, etc.
storage area network (SAN):
A section of an overall network (either LAN [local-area network] or WAN [wide-area network]) specifically reserved for storing data. SANs consist almost entirely of storage hardware. Servers connected to the network are gateways to the SAN subnetwork, where information can be stored and accessed.
Create A Shortcut:
To add shortcut icons to your Desktop in Window XP, click Start and All Programs. Find the application for which you want a shortcut and right-click it. From the pop-up menu, click Create Shortcut. This will create a shortcut that you can drag to your Desktop. In Windows Vista, click Start and All Programs and find the application for which you want a shortcut. Next, right-click the application, choose Send To, and click Desktop (Create Shortcut) in the resulting menu.
keyboard:
One of the main input devices used by computers, a PC's keyboard looks very similar to the keyboards of electric typewriters. Computer keyboards, however, usually include extra keys such as the function keys, cursor keys, and a number pad.
help:
A menu item in most programs that provides electronic assistance. Textbook-like help is available for searching and may be context-sensitive, meaning the help may change according to the type of function or program users are working on when they select the help option. Although most help files are usually portions of the manual put on-screen, some help options also may include tutorials and tips on how to use the program.
yoke:
An input device used with computer games, typically with flight simulation games, that allows the user to fly up or down, back or forward by pulling or pushing the steering wheel-like device.
RAM:
Random-access memory gives a computer a fast storage area for the programs you run. Without enough RAM, the computer feels sluggish because it has to use the hard drive instead. A new system should have at least 2GB of RAM. If your computer runs Windows Vista, however, you should consider 3GB or even 4GB.
sort field:
The information category that a sort process uses to organize the database information. For example, "last name" might be a sort field.
100Base-FX:
A term used to describe 100Mbps (megabits per second) Fast Ethernet network segments that use fiber optic cable rather than twisted-pair wire and support full duplex (the simultaneous sending and receiving of data) transmission. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) standard that includes 100Base-FX standards is 802.3u.
Tradigital:
A play on the word “tradition” that means the passing down of technology-related information, through word of mouth, in digital documents, and by other means.
text cursor:
A blinking horizontal or vertical line or a square that denotes where new characters or changes will appear in a text field.
on-screen display (OSD):
A list of image quality adjustments on the screen accessible by controls on a monitor's bezel.
opt-in email:
An email that a user receives by requesting information that comes on a regular basis from a Web site. Newsletters and notification of changes to a Web site are examples of opt-in emails.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP):
The set of standards that let users of the Web exchange information found in Web pages. You can use a Web browser, such as Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator, to read documents formatted and delivered according to HTTP. The beginning of every Web address, "http://," tells the browser the address' document is HTTP-compatible.
pull-down menu:
A menu in a graphical user interface that is opened by placing the screen cursor over the title and clicking a mouse button. A list appears below the title, and the user can select options from that list.
vandal:
A malicious or nuisance program embedded within an HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) file, email attachment, or push technology data. Vandals often arrive in applets or ActiveX controls and, unlike viruses, do not self-replicate. They can, however, breach security restrictions within a computer to access passwords or cause loss of service for users within a network.
Blu-ray:
A high-capacity optical storage format similar to DVD. Blu-ray was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group of developers that includes Sony, Philips, Apple, Dell, Samsung, and Mitsubishi, as well as many others. Blu-ray takes its name from the blue-violet color of the laser used in a Blu-ray player or PC drive. CD and DVD players and drives use red lasers. A Blu-ray player’s laser beam is thinner and more tightly focuses than the laser of a DVD player, so manufacturers can store more bits of data much more closely together on a Blu-ray disc than they can on a DVD. Blu-ray is designed to use high-definition video and audio and may replace video DVDs. Blu-ray video players can play video at resolutions up to 1080p, a higher-quality resolution than DVD players can produce. PC users can also record large volumes of data to a recordable Blu-ray disc, assuming a user has a Blu-ray recordable drive. A single-sided, single-layer DVD can store about 4GB of data, but a single-layer Blu-ray disc can store 25GB of data. A double-layered Blu-ray disc can store 50GB of data. Blu-ray supports the MPEG-2, MPEG-4 AVC, and SMPTE VC-1 video formats. It also supports several audio formats, such as linear PCM, Dolby Digital, Dolby Digital Surround, Dolby Digital Plus, Dolby TrueHD, and DTS Digital Surround.
lasagne syndrome:
A program that has a tendency to stack its dialog boxes on top of one another, which may make it difficult to use the program properly.
smart battery:
A portable computer battery that keeps its system up-to-date about its power status. Also called an intelligent battery.
one-time pad:
A one-time pad is a cryptography term used to describe a process in which a message is encrypted using a randomly generated key. A unique key is randomly generated for each encrypted message. To decrypt the message, a recipient must have the same key. Theoretically, one-time pad encryption is impossible to break because each key is unrelated to other keys. However, working on a secure method to transmit the secret key to the receiver is a problem. Generally, one-time pad encrpytion takes place when both the sender and receiver begin at the same physical location and then separate. This technique was commonly used in WWII.
mininotebook:
A notebook less than four pounds. In many cases, mininotebooks come in a smaller package, meaning you have a smaller display. Power is an issue because there’s not as much room to add a large power source to a mininotebook. Smaller displays help conserve power as do slower processors and graphics controls. Mininotebooks are typically one-spindle devices capable of supporting only a hard drive. You can add an optical drive and/or floppy drive by clipping additional hardware to the bottom of the notebook or attaching the drives with cables (to USB [Universal Serial Bus] ports, for instance).
add-on lens:
A lens, such as a wide-angle lens, that you can add on to some digital cameras using built-in threads.
SmartMedia card (SMC):
A popular solid-state flash memory module used in MP3 players, digital cameras, and other gadgets. SmartMedia cards are very thin at 0.03 inches and are 1.46 inches wide by 1.77 inches long, with a notch on one corner. This format also is known as the SSFDC (Solid State Floppy Disk Card) because it can fit inside an adapter that slides into a PC’s diskette drive. Occasionally the term SM card is abbreviated as SMC (SmartMedia card).
offset:
A number indicating how far from a starting point an item is located, usually in bytes. For example, an offset might tell a processor how many bytes into a segment of memory it will find a specific piece of data. This is the computing equivalent of giving directions to a house by saying it is the second one from the corner; it gives a reference point and counts from that point to the desired item.
paginate:
To take a document, break it down into separate pages, and number the individual pages for printing.
dark fiber:
A reference to fiber optic cable that has been installed but is not yet in use. Companies sometimes install extra cable when setting up a fiber optic network in anticipation of future needs.
internesia:
Internesia is a slang term that describes the inability to remember where you found a key piece of information. It’s obviously a combination of the words Internet and amnesia.
impression:
A measurement a Web publisher takes to count the number of times it delivered an ad. The server's log files, or records detailing its activity, count the number of times the server sent a Web page with a specific ad on it to a user. Impressions do not consider whether the Web surfer actually saw the advertisement, just whether the surfer had the opportunity to see it.
electronic mail (email):
Text messages sent through a network to a specified individual or group. Received messages are stored in an Inbox and can be kept, deleted, replied to, or forwarded to another recipient, depending upon the email program. Besides a message, an email may have an attached file or graphic. Users can make sure a message was received by requesting a receipt. Although not all items can be sent electronically, email's big advantage over postal mail, nicknamed "snail mail," is speed. Email can be delivered within seconds or minutes across thousands of miles. May also be spelled e-mail or E-mail.
64-bit:
Computers or applications that work with data 64 bits at a time. A 64-bit computer might have a microprocessor capable of handling 64 bits of information at a time. More commonly, 64-bit also can describe the capability of the computer's bus to transport 64 bits of data at a time.
full-motion video (FMV):
Video playback in which individual frames are changed at a rate of at least 30 frames per second (fps). On a computer, video can play at various frame speeds depending upon system resources. At slower than 30fps, the image begins to appear choppy and not fluid to the human eye.
white box:
A device, such as a hard drive or sound card, that may have been intended for inclusion in a system package but for whatever reason has been repackaged to be sold separately. White box refers to the cardboard packaging the device comes in, although the packaging is often not a white box at all. The devices themselves are often referred to as white box devices.
skyscraper:
Huge, vertically-oriented banner ads along one side of a Web site.
interlaced display:
A term used to describe the method of scanning the odd numbered horizontal lines making up a picture on a CRT (cathode-ray tube) monitor before then scanning the even numbered lines. This method is sometimes used when a monitor’s resolution setting is above 800 x 600 pixels per inch in order to help reduce screen flicker.
skew:
A twist in an image that makes it look tilted to one side or another. Some image-editing programs have a skew feature to help users warp their images.
uplink:
An uplink is a connection from a ground-based transmitter to a satellite. The satellite can then relay the signal to a ground-based receiver over the downlink connection.
Air Cards:
An air card is a small card that connects to your laptop or mobile phone and gives you wireless Internet access. It does not replace the Wi-Fi capabilities of your mobile devices; rather, it augments the availability of wireless Internet. Air cards connect to mobile devices through PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association), ExpressCard, or PC Card Type II slots, though some models use a USB connection. After you install the accompanying software, your card should be ready to use.
If you're the type of person who likes to work outside of the home or office, an air card may be just the thing you need to beef up your productivity. For example, if you'd rather spend an hour returning emails in the park instead of a coffee shop, you can just pop your air card into your laptop and have at it.
font scaling:
A special ability of some printers whereby the printer only needs the outline of a particular font to create it in any required size.
million instructions per second (MIPS):
The approximate number of commands carried out in one second. Microprocessor power is sometimes measured in MIPS as a way of comparing chips. This practice is somewhat controversial, as some computers require a different number of instructions to complete the same task.
gradient fill:
A graphical special effect that produces a 3D color look. A gradient fill uses a gradual blend from a light background to a solid foreground or from one color to another.
smoke test:
A circuit board that survives after power is applied is said to have passed the smoke test. A short circuit or some other problem may result in a smoking circuit board.
phishing:
Phishing is the act of trying to trick users into giving up personal information by making them think they’re dealing with a legitimate business. A phisher sends unsolicited bulk emails to a large number of users. The email claims to be from a legitimate company, such as AOL or eBay, and claims the user’s account will be suspended unless they click on the provided URL and supply the requested information (often passwords, credit card numbers, and other personal information). The URL is on a server controlled by the phisher, but its appearance is similar to that of the real site.
Web log:
A noncommercial, often personal page that updates its content once a day or more and typically focuses on a specific subject, topic, or theme. Web logs usually feature updated content from the site creator, viewers, and/or other Web sites as well as moderated discussions about a variety of subjects.
ampere (A):
The unit for measuring electrical current; current measures the amount of electric charge flowing through a conductor at a given time. An ampere is the charge of one coulomb (a unit of electric charge equal to 6.25 X 10 to the 18th electrons) passing a point in one second.
title bar:
The bar located along the top of a window or dialog box that displays the application's name. In Windows 3.x, the Control menu box, minimize button, and maximize button are located on either side of the title bar. In Windows 95 and subsequent Windows OSes, the title bar includes the minimize button, the maximize button, and the close button.
sort:
To organize data. For example, the information in a database can be sorted alphabetically, numerically, by keywords, and in other ways.
cycle:
One occurrence of a repeating event.
display:
The image or text viewed on a monitor. More recently, display has become synonymous with the monitor itself, particularly when referring to flat panel displays.
nym:
Short for pseudonym, a word used to describe the name given to or created by a computer user for the purpose of keeping that user’s real identity hidden. Nyms are used to conceal identities when sending and receiving email and browsing the Internet. When you pick or are assigned a nym from a privacy company, all your incoming and outgoing email and Internet browsing requests go through the company’s servers and are processed under your nym. Anyone looking for your identity, then, will only be able to know you by that chosen or assigned name.
photosite:
The specific light-sensitive area on an image sensor used to capture a digital image. Most image sensors used in digital cameras are CCDs (charge-coupled devices) or CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductorsS). Other portions of an image sensor are used for other purposes.
Quicken Interchange Format (QIF):
The file format used by Intuit software to store financial data. A .QIF file can be imported into programs such as Intuit Quicken or Microsoft Money.
native language:
The most basic computer language used by the computer's processor to communicate with the rest of the system when no other language has been introduced to the computer. In most cases, the native language is the binary code inherent to the processor before the OS (operating system) has been introduced.
rewrite:
A do over; in documents, this means to reword or edit sentences, paragraphs, and pages. In data storage, rewrite means to save over a file with the same file.
Recover A Deleted File:
If a Search for a missing file proves fruitless, check to see if Windows isn holding the file in the Recycle Bin (double-click the Recycle Bin Desktop icon). Most files you manually delete remain in the Recycle Bin, taking up hard drive space until you empty the bin (click File and Empty Recycle Bin if you wish to empty it). By default, the Recycle Bin uses 10% of your hard drive's capacity. (Change this by right-clicking Recycle Bin, clicking Properties, and adjusting the Maximum Size Of Recycle Bin slider.) When the capacity is full, Windows drops off older files as new ones are added. If you have a large-capacity hard drive, your files can remain in the bin for a long time. If an accidentally deleted file is in the Recycle Bin, highlight it, click File, and click Restore to retrieve it.
smartphone:
Advanced cellular phones that can also receive text and data via the Internet.
System Requirements:
When looking at specifications for new software, be aware that manufacturers will often list minimum system requirements as well as recommended ones. Though the software may work with the minimum requirements, it's probably a good idea to make sure that your system has the recommended ones because the programs you install will generally run a lot smoother and crash less if your system doesn't have to use every bit of its resources just to load them.
catalog:
A list of information about files or storage space. File details might include name, length, type, and location. In a database, catalog refers to the data dictionary.
RAM cache:
A cache made of high-speed SRAM (static RAM) linked directly to the CPU. RAM caches are used for keeping a copy of the most recently and most frequently accessed data in memory so the information is more quickly accessible. Also called a memory cache or processor cache.
wireless bridge:
An antenna or other device used to connect one network to another network over distances without cables or wires. A wireless bridge, for instance, could connect networks in multiple buildings on a college or company campus. In other circumstances, a wireless bridge could connect an office network in one part of the city to an office network in another part of the city. In order for a wireless bridge to work, both nodes must have a clear line of sight path to one another. Wireless bridges can be omnidirectional, meaning they radiate a signal in all directions, or directional. Directional wireless bridges must be pointed directly at one another.
video standards:
The various definitions of a PC's ability to display colors and resolution. A PC supports a certain video standard only if both the monitor and the video adapter support the standard. The numbers specified for a standard often are minimums; many manufacturers claiming to meet that standard actually exceed the minimum numbers.
absolute pointing device:
A peripheral that is limited by the boundaries of an on-screen application window as it manipulates the movement of a cursor.
alphanumeric sort:
A method of ordering data that accounts for alphabetic order, punctuation, and numerals. It often organizes data in the following order: punctuation marks, numbers, capital alphabetic characters, lowercase alphabetic characters, and any remaining characters.
backward compatible:
Computer hardware or software that works with older versions or standards. Backward compatibility is popular because it lets users upgrade systems and software gradually, rather than starting over from scratch each time a new version or standard is released.
about:
In Windows-based applications, an option that, when activated, identifies the registered user of the program, the version number, and the program's creator. The About command usually is located in the Help menu.
glass plate:
A plate found on a scanner or copier that the document is placed on to be scanned or copied. The glass allows light to illuminate the print on the document so that it can be processed.
overwrite:
To record information on top of previously recorded information, replacing the old with the new.
blade server:
A type of rack-mounted server that can accept additional motherboards, called server blades, each of which has its own CPU, RAM, and associated circuitry. The blades share a common power supply, operating system, and management mechanism. The blade-style server's modular approach to adding processing power reduces the overall cost, heat output, size, and management difficulty of a group of servers, especially compared to a traditional server farm of similar power.
off-peak:
Used to describe times when network activity is at a minimum. Off-peak hours typically include evenings and weekends. Mobile phone companies often provide a greater amount of free off-peak minutes than peak minutes and may charge less for additional off-peak minutes compared to peak minutes. Off-peak can also describe the hours at which Internet traffic is at a minimum.
graphical user interface (GUI):
GUI is a program interface that incorporates the computer’s graphic capabilities into the application, which makes it easier to use. A good example of a GUI is any Windows operating system. The user interacts with Windows through icons, windows, menus, and pointers as opposed to typing in DOS commands.
land:
A land is the smooth part of the underside of a CD-ROM, as opposed to a pit, which is an indentation on the underside of a CD-ROM. When the laser from a CD drive passes over a land, more light is reflected back to the photo cell than when the laser passes over a pit. This is how a CD drive distinguishes between pits and lands. The pits and lands equal the ones and zeros that make up the binary language of computing.
case window:
A clear window in a computer's tower case, usually in the case's removable side panel. Case windows are most often found in high performance desktop systems and are intended to show off the components inside. Case windows are typically made of scratch-resistant acrylic.
onboard:
Located on a circuit board; sometimes meaning specifically on the motherboard. For example, memory chips on the motherboard are referred to as onboard memory.
microspacing:
The insertion of tiny blank spaces between words, performed by a word processing application when justifying text.
bump mapping:
A technique used to create more realistic looking objects in three-dimensional (3-D) applications by giving them a detailed texture. Tree bark, for example, would be very detailed to give the tree a rough appearance.
Lossy vs. Lossless Audio:
Audio compression software uses two types of compression, lossless and lossy, to create smaller digital music files. Lossless compression retains the quality of the original audio recording. All of the 1s and 0s in the audio track are accounted for, and all of them are re-created perfectly when the compressed music is decoded. That means there is absolutely no quality loss compared to the original audio file, but lossless compression is extremely inefficient. It generally crunches files down to half their original size, meaning that with lossless compression, a 74-minute CD will consume about 325MB of space on your hard drive. Lossy compression gives up some quality to achieve much smaller file sizes than lossless compression. Lossy formats use different algorithms to strip some of the frequencies and other data out of a song that don't necessarily make any difference to our ears. A track compressed using a lossy algorithm may not have the dynamic range of the original track and may not sound quite as crisp, but it's possible to create perfectly acceptable music using a bit rate as low as 128Kbps for most types of audio. Audio that doesn't have a lot of dynamic range, such as audio books, can be recorded at bit rates as low as 64Kbps and remain virtually indistinguishable from the original audio CD. Using lossless compression, you could fit more than two hours worth of perfect audio on a single CD. Not bad, but using a bit rate of 128Kbps, you can squeeze more than 10 hours' worth of music on a CD or 20 hours' worth of audio books recorded at 64Kbps.
wireframe:
A computer model of a 3-D object, using wires to define the outside edges of the object. The wireframe provides the skeleton of objects rendered in 3-D for programs such as games.
interstitial:
A separate browser window that “pops up” when a user enters a certain Web site. Interstitials are usually advertisements, and they often include animated content or other graphics. The user can then click these ads or graphics to link to Web pages with more information. Some interstitials go away after a few seconds, but most must be closed by clicking the close buttons in the upper-left corner of the window. Also called pop-up ads.
airbrush:
A tool included in many photo-editing programs that simulates a spray paint pattern on a photo. Typically the user can define the color and size of the spray. Airbrushing is also a term often used by people who make a hobby of modifying their PCs. These users pay artists to airbrush complex (and expensive) artwork onto the side of their PC cases.
Open Source Initiative (OSI):
The organization responsible for writing the official definition of open source. It exists to promote the use of open-source software and to convince businesses to open-source their projects. While the OSI is actively involved in open-source advocacy, it is not opposed to proprietary software.
time quantum:
An amount of time in which a process runs without interruption. Also known as a time slice.
on-demand:
Usually used in reference to video services or video downloads. On-demand refers to a user’s ability to access, download, or view content at the time of his choosing, rather than at a predetermined time, as with a television show. Many cable services are now offering on-demand video services, and some online media portals, such as iTunes, are now offering video downloads and streaming video of television programs. Some hardware products, such as Tivo and other DVRs (digital video recorders) are also providing a sort of on-demand service in that they record TV shows and movies for the user so she can watch them at her convenience. Other devices, such as the Slingbox, let users view their local television programming from anywhere in the world, so long as they have access to the Internet.
content provider:
An individual or company that creates or delivers content, usually through the Internet, although it can also refer to those who provide content for cell phone users. "Content" may be in the form of text, audio, video, or images.
motherboard:
The printed circuit board that is the foundation of a computer. This board contains a computer's CPU (central processing unit), RAM (random-access memory) chips, and expansion slots. The motherboard is where all of the computer's components meet. Also called system board or mainboard.
form factor:
The size of a device, in physical terms rather than capacity. It can be used to describe media sizes (such as 3.5-inch and 5.25-inch diskette drives), but is more often used to describe the size and layout of devices' cases. A form factor for a computer case or motherboard describes its dimensions as well as its layout, such as the location of hard drives, CD-ROM and diskette drives, slots, and ports. Form factors for computer cases and motherboards can have descriptive names, such as the Baby AT form factor for motherboards.
internal drive:
A drive that sits within the computer’s case.
hand recognition:
A biometric technique that compares the size, shape, and features of the human hand for purposes of verification. Although the human hand is not unique enough to be used for identification on its own, it can be used to verify a person’s identity in concert with a PIN number, fingerprint, or some other means of identification. When users place a hand on a hand geometry device, a computer captures an image of the hand and compares overall size, width, and length and curvature of the fingers to previously captured information.
global unique identifier (GUID):
Certain versions of Microsoft’s Office affix a GUID to all documents it creates. The GUID can be used to trace a document back to a specific computer (and therefore, a specific user). A number of privacy concerns involving the GUID have been raised by individuals who fear GUIDs could be used to track down individuals who want to speak anonymously.
illegal character:
A character, such as a period, that isn't valid or can't be used in certain commands because the character is used for some other reason within the operating system.
in-circuit emulator (ICE):
An ICE (in-circuit emulator) is a computer chip used in the design of embedded systems. An ICE emulates the embedded processor used to run the system and allows developers to design and debug software.
buffer:
A temporary storage area in a computer's memory, usually RAM, that holds recent changes to files and other information to be written later to the hard drive. Because hard drives are relatively slow compared to RAM, buffers speed up performance. However, buffers generally are wiped clean by power outages; saving a file moves the information to the hard drive. Print buffers allow printing in the background while the user moves to another application or document. Buffers also are used by some transmission protocols. Incoming data might be stored in a buffer until they are verified.
universal remote:
Gives you complete control over all electronic devices in your home. This includes not just stereo equipment and televisions, but lights, kitchen appliances, and nearly anything else in the home that uses electricity.
through the lens (TTL):
In digital photography, this refers to a technology that operates through the camera's lens. For instance, TTL AE (Auto Exposure) is generally more accurate than other AE methods because it calculates the exposure as seen by the lens.
External Drive:
If your external storage device shows up in My Computer, but you can't access or write to the drive, the drive may be incorrectly formatted for Windows or have a corrupt partition. Windows 2000 and XP feature a utility called Disk Management that analyzes your external drive and assigns it an Online, Healthy, or Unreadable status. Open the utility by right-clicking the My Computer icon and selecting Manage. Under the Storage heading, double-click Disk Management to view your external storage drive's status. If it has an Unreadable status, you need to format the drive to remove the corrupt partition or incompatible Windows file format. Before you do, attempt to transfer the drive's data onto another computer because formatting completely erases the files on the drive. To format, simply right-click the external hard drive and click Format.
teergrube:
A slow-moving mail server designed to trap and punish address harvesters. A spammer's mailer gets stuck when she tries to send spam to email addresses gained from a teergrube host.
scanner:
A peripheral device that captures photos, graphics, or text, and converts that data into a digital format for editing on and output from a computer. Some scanners, coupled with an OCR (optical character recognition) program, can scan blocks of text into a word processor for editing, while others are designed specifically for photos, slides, or film. Scanners come in many shapes and sizes. Some of the most popular types of scanners include flatbed, sheetfed, handheld, and film.
spider:
A program that "crawls" across the World Wide Web, automatically collecting Web pages. Most spiders will follow every link on a page, cataloging each page, until it comes to a dead end. Then it will start over on a new page. Spiders are used primarily by Web search engines to gather data for the search engine's database. Search engines don't actually search the entire Internet when a user enters a search term. Instead, they look at the database of Web pages collected by their spider. Spiders are also known as crawlers and bots.
jacket:
In terms of fiber optics, the jacket is the outermost layer of a fiber optic cable made of hard plastic. Its purpose is to protect the cable from moisture, scratches, and other elements. The jacket is one of several protective layers that make up an optical cable.
UPS:
If you don't have one already, consider investing in a UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply). A UPS protects your computer by providing battery power after a power outage or electrical surge. This enables you to save your work and shut down your system safely. Suitable for home use, a standby UPS uses utility power under normal circumstances, but when that power is interrupted, it will use a backup battery. A continuous UPS will run off constant battery power. Depending on how many devices you have connected to the UPS, battery power can last approximately 15 minutes or longer. There are UPS's built to sustain power for longer amounts of time.
kilobit:
Equal to exactly 1,024 bits. Used to measure data storage or transmission in terms of bits, as in kilobits per second (Kbps).
hotspot:
Hotspots are locations that provide wireless Internet service via a wireless access point. Hotspots are usually in populated public areas, such as a town square or downtown area, as well as at hotels and airports. In some instances, users may have to pay for access whereas other hotspots provide free access.
podcast:
Podcasts are downloadable episodes of programs that are similar to radio broadcasts. These files are saved in a compressed audio format, such as MP3. Users can download individual episodes of favorite programs, or they can subscribe to podcasts. Typically, podcasts are delivered to subscribers through RSS (Really Simple Syndication) feeds. Podcasting is a method of publishing files to the Internet, allowing users to subscribe to a feed and receive new files automatically by subscription.
draft mode:
A function on many printers that allows the characters to be formed with as few dots or as little ink or toner as possible. Despite its substandard quality, draft mode is used for rough drafts because it is quicker and more economical than the normal printing mode.
minimize:
Reducing a window to a small button or icon, while keeping the application running inside it open. In the newest Windows operating systems, the minimize button is in the upper right of the application and has a short horizontal line at the bottom. When you minimize an application, it appears in the Taskbar as a button that, if clicked, maximizes the application.
heap:
A term used by programmers to describe the amount of memory a program needs in order for it to work. Heap memory has been set aside for a program to request as needed to operate. A set amount of heap memory is hard to determine before a program is started because the amount changes as a program runs.
clock:
One of two kinds of clocks in most computers. The first is a real-time clock, which keeps track of time just like a wall clock or wristwatch and often includes the date. This clock usually is battery-operated, so it continues working when the computer is turned off. The second kind is the system clock, which actually is a circuit that generates a series of pulses that pace the electronic system within the computer, synchronizing the circuits and operations.
log:
A detailed list of a system's or application's activities. A log can be useful for keeping track of computer use and emergency recovery of data.
hard page break:
The act of manually creating a page break in a document. Word processors typically mark page breaks automatically, but you have the option of creating a page break at any point in a document. The text following the hard page break will appear on the next page.
mousing surface:
Any surface on which a mouse is used. Normally, this would be a mouse pad. However, because optical mice function on most surfaces, common mousing surfaces today also include desktops, stacks of paper, and even pant legs.
digital video:
Full-motion video represented by the 0’s and 1’s of the binary system. Digital video is a bandwidth-intensive function, meaning you need a capable multimedia PC to handle its demands.
Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a wireless standard that takes advantage of short ranges and slow data transfer speeds. You'll find Bluetooth-capable PDAs, game controllers, wireless headphones, printers, and digital cameras.
Bluetooth is extremely secure due to its multiple layers of data encryption. Typically, Bluetooth-compatible devices will require a PIN and Bluetooth address to identify other Bluetooth devices. A low-powered Bluetooth device can transmit up to 30 feet and a high-powered device up to 300 feet.
flash drive:
USB (Universal Serial Bus) flash drives are high-speed, high-capacity memory devices designed for long-term data storage and easy transport among PCs. The host PC treats the device just like a drive, so you can transfer files of all types to and from the device. Because the device emulates a drive, it supports any type of file, including audio files (such as MP3s) and graphics files (such as JPEGs [Joint Photographic Experts Group] and BMPs [bit map]). In addition, USB flash drives can easily support applications, CAD (computer-aided design) drawings, and a wealth of personal information you’d rather not leave on any particular PC. Most USB flash drives are smaller than a pack of gum and can easily fit onto a key ring. A flash drive is also called a thumb drive or travel drive.
integrate:
As a verb, integrate refers to the action of two or more hardware or software components working together as a system. As an adjective, it means something is a single, conglomerated unit.
Dual-Core Processors:
A dual-core processor has two execution cores on a single chip. Each core independently accesses the frontside (system) bus, which connects the CPU to the system's RAM.
A dual-core processor is ideal for multitasking—for instance, watching streaming video while listening to MP3s with other applications open, as well—or playing graphics-intensive games.
adapter card:
A printed circuit board connected to the motherboard at an expansion slot. An adapter card enables a computer to communicate with a peripheral. For example, a joystick requires an adapter card to communicate with the computer system. Also called controller card.
agent :
An automated program, generally in the context of the Internet. These programs either gather information or perform a task for you without your intervention. An example would be services that check to see if specified Web pages have been updated. Agents include "bots," which can, for example, be set to gather news items of interest.
Portable Power:
For power-hungry laptops and portable DVD players, an external rechargeable battery is the only type of portable power that stores enough energy to provide the extra hours of battery life you need on a long plane ride. The additional usage time you'll receive from an external rechargeable battery will differ depending on the watts stored in the battery and the power consumption of your device. Generally, you can expect most laptops to run another two to three hours off an external battery that stores around 60W, and a battery with a capacity of around 120W should power your notebook computer for another five to six hours. External batteries typically connect to the DC input jack of your portable device (the same hookup you use for the AC power adapter) through an included cord that may feature adaptable connectors. We should note that DC input jacks vary in size, and you'll want to make certain the external power source includes connector tips that fit your portable device's DC input jack. Contact the external battery's manufacturer or visit its Web site to ensure a connector tip is provided for your device.
loader:
A program utility that moves a program from storage into memory, where it can begin operation.
talk time:
When buying a cell phone, you’ll want to pay attention to its talk time. Talk time is the length of time you can transmit data (via voice phone conversations or other data transmissions) without recharging the battery. Talk time is usually expressed in minutes or hours. Conversely, standby time, or the amount of time the phone can operate without transmitting data, is often expressed in hours or days. Because talking on the phone will drain a battery faster than leaving it idle, talk time is often considerably less than standby time.
Basic Input/Output System (BIOS):
(Pronounced bye-ose) A special piece of software built into most computers. BIOS routines control the startup process of the machines and other basic functions such as the keyboard, display, and disk drives. On older computers, the BIOS is stored in read-only memory, which is not erased when the power to the computer is shut off. Newer computers store BIOS on flash ROM, which can be erased and rewritten if the user needs to update the BIOS program.
kill:
To delete or remove data or a file.
oscillation:
To swing back and forth, such as the waving arm of a metronome. The electrical meaning is a complete cycle of alteration.
grounding:
The act of touching a metal surface to discharge static electricity. It's always wise to ground oneself before working inside a PC because the static electricity can damage electronic circuits inside the PC's case.
Printer Problems:
If your printer won't operate, start by checking the simplest things. Start by verifying that the power cable is plugged into the printer and a wall outlet, power strip, or surge protector. Next, make sure the printer's power button is turned on and that the printer's data cable is connected to both the printer and your PC.
Next, make sure there isn't a sheet of paper stuck in the printer. If there was a paper jam earlier, your printer may not even attempt to print any more documents until you remove the paper that's stuck.
dots per inch (dpi):
A measure of printer resolution that indicates how many ink dots the printer can place in one square inch. The larger the pi, the sharper the printed image. A text printer should have at least 600dpi; a graphics printer should have at least 1200 x 600 or 1200 x 1200 dpi.
archive file:
A data-file copy stored somewhere other than the location of the file from which the copy was made. An archive copy helps ensure against permanent data loss, which may occur in cases of system failure or natural catastrophe. Backing up files to a diskette or a tape drive is one method of archiving data. Extremely valuable archives often are stored in fireproof vaults, underground bunkers, or at sites hundreds of miles from the original data source.
uniformity:
A measure of the brightness consistency on a computer screen. A screen with areas of darkness has poor uniformity. You can easily spot a monitor with poor uniformity when looking at a plain white background on its screen.
A Misbehaving Router:
If you can access the Internet when you connect directly to your broadband modem, but not when you put a router between the modem and your PC, one solution is to reset your network devices. This gives them the chance to reassign IP (Internet Protocol) addresses and connect to each other without conflicts. To completely reset your network devices, power off your PC and then unplug your broadband modem and router. Leave the units unplugged for a few minutes. Consult your device manuals to determine whether you need to perform any additional tasks to reset the devices (some units have Reset buttons, for example). Finally, plug in and power on your devices, starting with the broadband modem, then your router, and then your PC.
warez:
Pronounced “wares,” a term for copyrighted software made available illegally for downloading from the Internet. Also, any method used by software pirates to acquire applications without paying for them.
meta tag:
An HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) code used to index pages. The tag includes such things as keywords and page descriptions for a Web site.
newbie:
Describes any new user of computer or Internet technology.
discovery:
The exploration of a network to determine topologies, IP (Internet Protocol) addresses, database information, etc.
shareware:
Copyrighted software distributed on a free-will donation basis either via the Internet or by being passed along by satisfied customers.
soft reset:
Most PDAs have a Reset button. If your PDA freezes, or if your software installation requires it, you may need to perform a soft reset by pressing the Reset button.
snail mail:
Slang for traditional paper mail sent by a postal service, taken from its relative slowness to arrive compared to electronic mail.
repeater:
An instrument that increases a signal's strength so it can be transmitted and received over a greater distance without a loss in quality.
rich text:
Advanced technology used for page layout formatting of text. Rich text can include fonts, borders, underlining, italicizing, and other formatting. Rich text requires more storage space than plain text.
Web based email:
Email that a person can access from any computer that has Internet access and a Web browser. Examples of these accounts are Hotmail or Yahoo mail.
underexposed:
Refers to a digital image that is too dark or wasn't exposed to enough light.
drive bay:
The system unit space reserved for the installation of any type of drive. These slots are usually located on the front panel of a computer. Empty drive bays may be protected by a plastic cover. To install many types of add-on components, an empty drive bay is required.
polyphonic ringtone:
Different cell phones support different types of ringtones. A polyphonic ringtone uses your phone's ability to emulate instrument sounds and play multiple tones at once. Phones that are polyphonic-capable can play up to 40 notes at once, but are unable to play lyrics. In comparison to monophonic ringtones that can only play a tone-based version of a song, polyphonic ringtones sound more like the original song. Conversely, because polyphonic ringtones can't include lyrics, they're apt to sound less like the original song than a full music ringtone that includes lyrics and sounds nearly identical to the full version of an original song.
multicore chip:
Multiple cores (the central brain of the chip) contained on one chip. Having dual or multiple cores allows a chip to divide computing tasks efficiently, which allows more computing work to be finished in a shorter amount of time than a single-core chip would have used to do the same work.
palette:
The set of available colors in a given computer graphics program or computer system. Palette also can refer to the collection of tools in paint programs used for creating and altering images.
posting:
To transmit a message or article for publication on an Internet newsgroup or bulletin board.
portability:
The ease with which software can be moved from one computer or operating system to another. Portability can be defined as either high or low. High portability implies the software is easily moved to other systems; low portability means it can be moved with great effort, similar to the effort put into writing the original program.
popularity ranking:
A technique used by some search engines, with the most popular Web site listed first. The number of sites that link to the ranked site determines popularity.
mounting kit:
A group of hardware components used to secure monitors, network hubs, and other hardware items to walls or desks.
gamma correction:
Correcting the brightness, contrast, or color of computer graphics on a printer, monitor, or scanner so graphics are uniform on a monitor or hard copy.
gov:
This top-level domain name is reserved for Web sites affiliated with the U.S. government. It is used in URLs (uniform resource locators) to identify a site as a government Web site. For example, www.whitehouse.gov or www.firstgov.gov.
disk capacity:
The number of bytes, or characters, a disk can hold; the maximum storage volume of a disk. Capacities are usually stated in kilobytes (KB or K), megabytes (MB), or gigabytes (GB).
key length:
In terms of data encryption or decryption, key length is a measurement of how secure the encryption key is. In general, the longer the key length, the more secure the encryption is.
Cold start:
>computer science To start running a computer program from the very beginning, without being able to continue the processing that was occurring previously when the system was interrupted.
Bootstrap:
In computers, to bootstrap or "to boot is to load a program into a computer using a much smaller initial program to load in the desired program which is usually an operating system.
core dump:
A core dump is the recorded state of the working memory of a computer program at a specific time, generally when the program has terminated abnormally, crashed.
Input:
Input is the term denoting either an entrance or changes which are inserted into a system and which activate/modify a process. It is an abstract concept, used in the modeling, system (s) design and system(s) exploitation. It is usually connected with other terms, e.g., input field, input variable, input parameter, input value, input signal, input device and input file.
I/O:
Input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system such as a computer, and the outside world – possibly a human, or another information processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an input or output operation. I/O devices are used by a person or other system to communicate with a computer. For instance, keyboards and mice are considered input devices of a computer, while monitors and printers are considered output devices of a computer. Devices for communication between computers, such as modems and network cards, typically serve for both input and output. Note that the designation of a device as either input or output depends on the perspective. Mice and keyboards take as input physical movement that the human user outputs and convert it into signals that a computer can understand. The output from these devices is input for the computer. Similarly, printers and monitors take as input signals that a computer outputs. They then convert these signals into representations that human users can see or read. For a human user the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving input.
Debugging:
Debugging is a methodical process of finding and reducing the number of bugs, or defects, in a computer program or a piece of electronic hardware thus making it behave as expected. Debugging tends to be harder when various subsystems are tightly coupled, as changes in one may cause bugs to emerge in another.
Unrecognized Keyboard:
If Windows displays an error message that a keyboard isn't present or characters you type aren't displaying on-screen, check the connection to the computer. Shut your system down and then look at its back to make sure the connector is securely plugged into the proper PS/2 or USB port. PS/2 keyboard ports are typically colored purple, and the connector will only fit one way. Check also that the connector's pins aren't bent or broken. It's possible to gently bend a pin back in place, but if it's broken, replacing the keyboard is your only option./P>
If the pins are fine but you suspect the board isn't receiving power, plug another keyboard into the computer. If it works, your keyboard's circuitry may be damaged, and you'll likely need a replacement. If the substitute also fails, the PS/2 or USB port or a motherboard controller may be bad, and it's possible you'll have to replace the motherboard. Finally, if the keyboard is plugged into a USB hub, the hub may not be capable of supplying sufficient power to the keyboard. Try connecting the keyboard directly to a dedicated USB port.
Memory Error Messages:
Memory-related error messages that appear when your computer first begins booting usually point to a bad memory module. The computer performs basic tests on all hardware when it's first switched on. If the information it writes to memory is not the same as the information it reads from memory, the computer stops booting and displays an error message.
In most cases you'll need to replace the bad module. If you have recently installed new memory, however, the problem could be a compatibility issue. Try removing the new memory and see if it solves the problem.
If you have multiple memory modules, try booting your PC with just one module installed at a time. This will help you isolate the bad memory module.
emoticons:
Also known as smileys and short for emotion icons, these punctuation combinations form small pictures, often best viewed sideways. Emoticons are most often seen in electronic mail (email) and Internet messages.
queue (Pronounced cue.):
Operations such as printing that are being held, usually in the order received, before the computer executes them. Also refers to lining up these operations. When referring to programming, it means to remove data elements in the order they were entered.
Tame An Unruly Mouse In WinXP:
If you installed a new mouse, but Windows won't recognize it, a driver conflict may be the problem. If you didn't uninstall the previous mouse, it may be causing a hardware or device driver conflict. Windows Device Manager can identify hardware conflicts and device driver problems, as well as remove problem devices from your computer. You can either connect the previous mouse or use your keyboard to open and view the Device Manager. Press the Windows key to bring up the Start menu. Use the arrow keys to highlight Settings and Control Panel and then press ENTER. Select the System icon, press ENTER, and use the arrow keys to select the Hardware tab. Press TAB until you select the Device Manager button and press ENTER. Press TAB and press the Down arrow key until the Mouse icon is highlighted. Use the Right arrow key to display the installed mouse. An exclamation point indicates that a mouse has a driver conflict.
middleware:
Software that allows two otherwise incompatible programs to communicate with each other. The middleware converts data from one program to the other, and vice versa. Middleware is most often used to connect databases.
digital divide:
A term used to describe the gap that exists between people who have the capability, access, and knowledge to use modern technology and those who do not.
privilege level:
An authorized access level that each network user is assigned, either as a user, an administrator, or as a guest. This determines what information he or she can and cannot have access to.
Satellite Speakers:
Speakers used in a surround-sound configuration. The satellite speakers are used as the front speakers, usually placed to the left and right of the sound system, facing out.
groupware:
A type of software designed to let users on a network use the same software and work on the same projects at the same time. A popular groupware product is Lotus Notes, which is software that, among other applications, lets users work on the same documents and exchange email.
end user:
The person who uses hardware or software programmed or designed by another person.
merge:
To put two sets of data together while keeping the integrity of each intact.
canned software:
Off-the-shelf software available in stores, as opposed to custom software created for a specific company or individual.
toner cartridge:
A removable container that holds toner for a laser printer and which can be thrown away when empty. Some toner cartridges contain only the toner, while others include the photosensitive drum, making it less likely that someone will touch the drum and damage or mark up its surface.
back-hack:
Back-hack refers to the art of tracking a hacker who has broken into your system.
pong:
The result of a successful ping, or test of a network connection’s performance. If the site or device you ping is operating properly it sends a return transmission called a pong.
traffic:
How much activity is taking place on a communications system. Too many users on a network will lead to more traffic than the system was designed to carry, or a kind of traffic jam. Overloaded networks will sometimes malfunction, so network administrators work to control traffic.
point size:
A measurement used to describe the height of a printed character. A single point is 1/72 of an inch.
tab stop:
A place on a text line where the cursor goes when the TAB key is pressed. In word processing documents, tab stops usually are placed at regular intervals across the line but can be set wherever the user wants them.
machine learning:
The ability of a machine to recognize patterns and improve future performance based on this experience.
native file format:
The way an application fundamentally arranges and presents data. One example of a native file format is the way Microsoft Word inherently arranges and presents text in a file with a .DOC extension. The native file format may be associated with one program, or it may be universally accepted.
key generation:
Refers to the actual act of creating a key, which is a string of bits used to encrypt or decrypt data or information for security purposes.
microprocessor:
The integrated circuit, known as the CPU (central processing unit), that controls the computer. Microprocessors cram more than 1 million transistors into 1 square inch of space. Microprocessors are responsible for interpreting instructions gathered from input devices and transmitting the results to output devices. Though there are many types of microprocessors, the two main families used in PCs are made by Intel and AMD.
bot:
An abbreviation for robot. Bot usually refers to software that executes some function automatically. Search engines typically use bots to seek out Web sites and record information about the sites for future search purposes.
output:
Information that comes out of a computer after processing. Output can be displayed on a screen, sent to another computer, or stored on a variety of storage media.
line driver:
A device that boosts the strength of a signal before sending it down a line. A line driver increases the transmission distance, which helps to ensure the signal reaches its destination.
recover:
To stabilize a PC after an error has occurred. If used in conjunction with a program, to recover means the program stabilizes itself and returns to use without user intervention. Often "recover" is used to describe getting files back after a hard drive error. In this case, a recovery program searches for whatever information remains in storage. Whatever is found is "recovered."
photosensor:
A highly sensitive device that converts light into an electrical signal. Solar-powered devices use photosensors.
personal computer:
A computer designed for use by a single user, with everything a user could need for basic computing, including the ability to process and store information. IBM introduced its first single-user computer as the IBM PC in 1981, and in the last 15 years, the term has come to represent any computer based on the IBM standard. The other standard in the personal computer market is the Apple Macintosh. Software and peripherals specify whether they work on IBM-compatible PCs or Apple Macintosh platforms. In addition to standard abilities such as word processing, PCs have brought a wide variety of new possibilities to home users. Today a PC can be used to play high-tech video games, access huge amounts of information, and contact people around the world. The growth of the Internet and the World Wide Web has opened up a vast new world of opportunities for PC users.
mail merge:
The ability of some word processing applications to automatically insert a list of addresses and other information into form letters. The user sets up a document laced with special codes indicating where addresses and names will be inserted. This document is then combined with a list of names and addresses. The results can be printed or stored as separate files. Mail merge saves the user the hassle of repeatedly typing the same text. Also called print merge.
peripheral:
Any device connected to the computer that performs a specific function. Printers, keyboards, diskette and tape drives, and monitors are among the most common types of peripheral devices.
bit bucket:
A term used in jest by users to describe the fictional place where information or data lost in transmission on the Internet winds up.
peer:
A computer that exists on the same level as another with similar access privileges on a network.
media:
The plural term for computer storage material such as diskettes, hard disks, and tapes.
neologism:
A word, term, or expression recently invented or given a new meaning. One example is wallpaper, which, before computers became widespread, meant the material you cover a room’s walls with. The rate of neologisms has increased with the introduction of new technology, most notably, the Internet, which has spawned such terms as intranet, extranet, emoticon, and netiquette.
fisheye lens:
A camera lens that can be attached to some cameras to produce a very specific effect. A fisheye lens is a very wide angle lens that takes straight lines of an image and displays them as curves. Typically, a fisheye lens focuses more intensely on the center of an image, while at the same time focusing less on the outer edges of the image.
chaffing:
A method of keeping email messages safe from encryptions while they transmit. Chaffing adds false packages to a message when it is sent and removes those packages when it is received, making it impossible for anyone but the intended recipient to understand the message.
photo retouching:
To improve a scanned photo image using the tools available in a photo manipulation program. Improvements can include everything from more refined colors to improved clarity.
granularity:
A measurement or degree of an image's on-screen clarity. The smaller the dots that make up an image and the more dots used, the clearer the image. Bigger dots make the image appear grainy. Granularity also refers to the degree of difficulty in searching a database and manipulating data. If a search's features are not specific enough, a database might be considered quite granular.
perspective correction:
A type of texture mapping that accounts for depth while rendering images. By doing this, objects that are supposed to be closer are larger, and those that are farther away appear smaller.
wave:
The pattern of a signal, such as that generated by sound and light, that changes at regular intervals.
time out:
A communication or program error that results when a response is not given in a specified length of time. For example, you can be disconnected (sometimes called "kicked off") from an online service if you do nothing for a certain period of time. Some programs let you choose the length of time after which the program times out, so if you walk away and accidentally leave the program open, it won't keep running indefinitely.
resource:
An item, either hardware or software, that is available for a computer to access during an operation. A resource can be accessed by a single computer or through a network and includes items such as a system's hard drive or a shared printer.
hardwired:
A function built into a system's hardware, rather than software, to perform a task. The capability to perform a task can be built in through an extra microchip, instead of programming the task into software. For example, some computers might include MPEG (Motion Picture Experts Group) video as hardware instead of relying on software to do the job. However, the term occasionally is used when referring to software. It might also be said that a feature is hardwired into software if that feature cannot be manipulated or changed by the user.
insert:
To place in between. In computing, it means to place something between data, information, or any other pieces of a document. For example, you can insert words anywhere in a word processing document.
microchip art:
A "signature," such as a nonfunctioning symbol or picture, that microchip designers often add to their chips to add a personal touch to their handiwork.
transfer:
Transmitting data from point A to point B, whether the points are on a communications link or between components on a computer system.
pessimistic locking:
This database feature locks an object before the object is updated. That way, the user will be sure no one else accesses the object during the update and ensures that the update will be made.
video black:
A blank section of videotape. Video black is often used to separate different portions of a program on the tape and at the very beginning and end of a tape.
mouse droppings:
Pixels that are improperly displayed after the mouse pointer moves across a PC screen. This happens frequently if a mouse driver doesn’t work with the current graphics mode.
Roll Back A Device Driver In WinXP:
One of WinXP's nifty system-security features is the Roll Back Driver utility, which lets you uninstall problematic drivers for hardware and revert to the previous driver with a few mouse clicks. If you update the driver for a device and it begins causing problems, use this utility (you must be logged in at the Administrator level). Right-click the My Computer icon on your Desktop and select Properties. Select the Hardware tab and under the General tab, click the Device Manager button. Select the device with the problematic driver. Click the Driver tab and click Roll Back Driver.
hotkey:
A key or combination of keys, such as CTRL and an alphanumeric character, that activate a pop-up program or cause some other predetermined action to occur. For instance, SHIFT and F7 are hotkeys used to print in DOS versions of WordPerfect.
radio frequency (RF):
The range of frequencies from 3KHz to 300GHz on the electromagnetic spectrum between light and sound. These frequencies are used by devices such as AM and FM radios and baby monitors, or for communications between satellites.
ALT key:
The ALT (Alternate) key on a computer is used in conjunction with other keys to give a key an additional function other than the one indicated by its label. The ALT key is similar to the CTRL (Control) key. For instance, employing the ALT-F key combination in most Windows applications will open the File menu. When using the ALT key, it is best to press the ALT key and, before releasing it, press the other key desired.
polymorphic virus:
These kinds of viruses try to avoid detection by antivirus programs by changing their code. The structure or code of the virus will appear to be different on different systems, which may confuse the antivirus software.
mouse ahead:
An action that happens when you begin clicking the mouse before the software is prepared to accept new input. This happens most often with programs you’re so familiar with that you know when and where you need to click before the program is done loading.
host:
A computer that shares information with other computers, or the act of sharing information with or providing services for other computers. Examples of host computers include a file server, which shares files and programs with other computers on the network; a Web server, which shares content with the rest of the Internet; and a mail server, which accepts email messages and sends them to the intended recipients.
bit rot:
A hypothetical disease describing the breakdown or decay over time of the underlining binary instructions that make up a program or a data file. Bit rot can be brought about by physical processes. Computers contain error correction codes to compensate for bit rot, but large amounts of bit rot may result in a program that’s so rotted it will no longer run.
grabber:
A video device that captures images from video and then changes them into a digital form the computer can understand. A grabber can refer to the hardware card that captures the video frame or the software that grabs the image and stores it as a file.
rackmounted:
Hardware devices, such as servers or monitors, designed to be installed on a metal frame. Also describes devices already installed on a metal frame.
tiger team:
In software development, a group of people who volunteer or are paid to test new applications with the goal of determining the code’s security weaknesses.
Network WinXP Computers:
If all of your WinXP computers can access the Internet via a shared router, but they can't see each other, don't panic. You can easily solve this problem by configuring your PCs to recognize each other (and share files, folders, and printers) over the network. Although your computers are physically networked, they may not yet belong to a specific network group and may lack other settings (such as file sharing settings). Some networking devices include file-sharing programs that let you configure your network, but don't worry if your equipment doesn't include such software. Windows has a built-in Network Setup Wizard that can configure your computers and put them into a network group. Once you complete the wizard on each networked PC, you'll be able to see all of your network computers' shared folders in the My Network Places window and access any shared printers. To start the wizard, click Start, All Programs, Accessories, Communications, Network Setup Wizard, and then follow the Wizard's instructions.
middle-school dance:
An annoying impasse where two pieces of equipment, such as modems, PCs, networks, and fax machines, that are attempting to communicate with each other are both sitting idle, waiting for the other to begin the transmission. While the name is amusing, and bears some nostalgia for those awkward junior high days, the equipment deadlock is anything but funny, especially when you're waiting for a data transfer.
Enable Or Disable Sidebar In Vista:
To enable or disable the Sidebar in Vista, open Control Panel and double-click Windows Sidebar Properties. Deselect the Start Sidebar When Windows Starts checkbox to turn it off or select the checkbox to turn it on and then click Apply.
persistence:
The momentary lingering of previous images on a changing computer display.
kibibyte:
From kilo binary byte, a unit of measurement that is equal to precisely 1024 bytes. Similar to the more common kilobyte. Kibibyte came about because the prefix “kilo” may refer to 1000 units or 1024 units, whereas Kibibyte strictly refers to 1024 units.
micron:
Short for micrometer, the unit of measurement used to measure the core of a fiber-optic cable, or more commonly, the elements that create the transistors on a CPU (central processing unit). A micron is one-millionth of a meter, 1/25,000 of an inch, or 1/50 of the width of a human hair. The first 486 processor measured 1 micron and the first Pentium measured 0.8 microns. The smaller the chip, the cooler and faster it can run.
Use WinXP-style Folder In Vista:
If you prefer to use WinXP's folder style in Vista, open Control Panel, double-click Folder Options, select the Use Windows Classic Folders radio button, and click Apply.
pixel:
The smallest part of an image that a computer printer or display can control. An image on a computer monitor consists of hundreds of thousands of pixels, arranged in such a manner that they appear to each be connected. Each pixel on a color monitor comprises three colored (blue, red, and green) dots. The term comes from the words picture element, and also is abbreviated PEL (pronounced pell).
highlight:
Any indication that a text block or an object has been selected with a mouse-click or the arrow keys on the keyboard. The highlight may appear as a change in the color of text or as a border around an object. A highlighted object is usually ready for some type of operation, such as deletion.
manual:
A book or a computer program that contains a set of instructions about how to use a piece of software or hardware. Most computer products are sold with some sort of users manual included in the package; manuals written by third parties can be obtained from retailers of books and computer products. In many cases, the third-party manual can contain more tutorial and troubleshooting information than the manual that was provided by the manufacturer.
data:
Distinct pieces of information, which can exist in various forms such as numbers, text, bit, bytes, or memory. This information can be processed and translated by a computer, and as a result, text, pictures, or sound appear on-screen.
Ad Hoc Networks In Vista:
Vista has the built-in ability to set up an ad hoc or temporary network between two computers. (NOTE: ad hoc networks can only be set up wirelessly in Vista, so both PCs must have wireless capabilities and be within 30 feet of each other.) These direct networks are usually created for a short period of time in order to share files or an Internet connection. In order to set up an ad hoc network, click the Connect To A Network link under Tasks in the Network And Sharing Center. Click Set Up A Connection Or Network in the window that opens. Then click Set Up An Ad Hoc (Computer-To-Computer) Network, and a wizard will walk you through the steps.
keyboard shortcut:
One or more keys that, when pressed together, equal a menu function or other function in an application usually reached through a mouse-click. Keyboard shortcuts usually are not as intuitive as point-and-click mouse commands, but the frequent user of a program can save time by learning them. One shortcut in many programs is CTRL-X, which equals the Cut option found in many Edit menus.
site map:
An organized directory of pages on a Web site.
picture in picture (PIP):
A technology that lets a user view a smaller window within a larger display. For example, with a PIP display, a person can channel surf in a corner of a television screen while watching another channel. In addition to television, PIP is often used in video conferencing.
locking:
A process that allows one person at a time full access to files contained in a network database. Locking prevents two people from trying to make changes on the same file at the same time. In most situations, a second user may view the file, but only the first one can make content changes.
Buddy List:
A personalized list of contacts with whom to communicate online. Coined by AOL, a buddy list informs the user when a contact is logged into the network so the two acquaintances can converse online.
remote printer:
A printer far from the user. It could be a shared printer in a secluded area of a building or, with the advent of printing over a network or the Internet using IPP (Internet Printing Protocol), a printer thousands of miles away.
object:
A term used in programming to denote a reusable section of code. Object-oriented programming methods use objects as the basic building blocks of programs. Objects are generally standardized so they can be used in many different types of programs without having to be rewritten each time. In graphics, the term is used to describe a distinct element, such as a block.
cookie:
Information from a Web site sent to a browser and stored on a user's hard drive so the Web site can retrieve it later. A Web server using the technology looks for a cookie when a user visits. Cookies generally are used to identify visitors. A cookie can contain information about the user's login name, password, and preferences. For subscription sites, the cookie can make it unnecessary to log in each time. Users have the option to configure their browsers to either accept or reject cookies.
RAID:
redundant array of independent disks
bottleneck:
Any component, bus, or interface that slows down an otherwise faster system or network. For example, an external hard drive and its host computer will likely be constrained by a slow parallel port connection between them. Likewise, a 56Kbps (kilobits per second) dial-up modem connection can be considered a bottleneck between a fast Web or cache server and your PC.
dinosaur pen:
Storage space that houses huge, outdated mainframe computers.
single drive:
A term used when a system only contains one hard drive inside the computer's case.
tron:
A term used to describe someone who seems to have become only accessible through electronic means, such as email or video talk, and is no longer accessible by phone or in person.
rollers:
Parts located in a printer that stretch across the width of a page and pull the paper through during the printing process.
wearable computer:
Any computing device worn on the body. Some wearable computers are portable multifunctional devices such as a PDA (portable digital assistant), mobile phone, and MP3 player designed to be worn for easy access. Some wearable computers even include a head-mounted LCD (liquid-crystal display) screen. Prototypes for future wearable computers include specially-designed power-generating clothing such as a shirt with solar cells.
talker:
Refers to an Internet site that hosts text-chatting functionality. The term is most popular among users from the United Kingdom.
halo effect:
Areas of light around bright objects that appear on a computer monitor when they shouldn't. The halo effect is a sign of an inferior monitor.
toeprint:
A particularly small footprint. Manufacturers use the term footprint to indicate how much desktop space a product consumes.
toggle:
To switch between settings, such as on and off. Also can mean the actual switch that controls these settings. For example, in Microsoft Word, the buttons controlling the switches for bold, italic, and underlined text are toggle switches, because each of those text characteristics is either on or off when the buttons are clicked.
giga (G):
Used to represent 1 billion, or 10 to the ninth power. In computer terminology, however, the prefix giga means 2 to the 20th power, or 1,073,741,824.
scalable:
A measure of how easy it is to upgrade a particular hardware or software product. For example, on a small network hub, how easy is it to add more ports to the network? Or, if a company bought a powerful computer for a Web server, can they significantly upgrade the hard drive and RAM (random-access memory)? Software scalability indicates that a product can handle heavier usage if it's given more computing power or memory. Programs that aren't scalable will crash under heavier usage conditions even if there is plenty of memory or computing power available. Scalability is a very important feature for hardware and software to have. If you're making a significant investment in a product, you should be confident that you can add to it and use it for years to come.
digital sort:
A separation process that divides and arranges digital information.
Hard bounce:
An email that is returned undelivered before being accepted by the recipient's server. A common cause is a misspelling of the domain name or the second part of the e-mail address. For example,if the sender enters yourname@sartcomputing.com instead of yourname@smartcomputing.com, a hard bounce will occur.
leaf:
A file at the bottom of a hierarchical file system that can have nothing below it. Using a tree structure analogy, the leaves connect to the branches, which connect to the roots.
keyboard buffer:
A specific location in a computer's memory where keystrokes from the keyboard are stored until the computer acts upon them. This allows fast typists to continue typing even if the computer is unable to immediately display the letters.
wire jam:
Slang term for Internet congestion. Large amounts of data are clogging a network, slowing down network performance, not unlike traffic during rush hour.
stack:
Memory buffers your computer uses like sticky notes to decide which piece of hardware is next in line to work.
key pals:
Similar to pen pals, key pals are two users who communicate frequently by email instead of written correspondence.
data manipulation:
The processing of information. The retrieval, sorting, modifying, filtering, and querying of data are a few of the primary methods of data manipulation. Essentially, data already must be present within a file or database for data manipulation to occur; it does not involve entering new data. The creation or deletion of files, however, is considered part of data manipulation.
e-paper:
A generic term used to refer to electronic paper. E-paper exhibits some of the same properties as paper. It’s thin, flexible, and inexpensive. Using special devices, however, you can create an electric image on the paper. Unlike paper, e-paper is completely reusable.
video card:
A circuit board in a computer that controls display factors such as resolution, colors displayed, and speed of images displayed. A video card cannot bring an older monitor up to its standard. Both the monitor and the video card must support a resolution, such as 800 x 600, for that resolution to be possible on the system. Today's video cards typically contain some memory so that the PC's RAM (random-access memory) isn't bogged down with handling displays. Some cards, often called video accelerators or graphics accelerators, contain a graphics coprocessor that handles graphical computations. Also called a video adapter, video board, or video controller.
wait state:
A pause in a microprocessor's clock cycles that allows for differences in speed between one component and others in a computer (such as input/output devices or RAM). Wait states are common in systems where the microprocessor has a much higher clock speed than other components, requiring the latter to "play catch up." During a wait state, the microprocessor idles for one or more cycles while data comes in from RAM or other components. Although unnoticeable to users, this idling can affect a system's performance because it involves the microprocessor's clock speed; if clock speed is reduced, system performance will slow. Wait states also are not uncommon between buses and expansion cards, where the expansion cards run slower than their buses.
cladding:
The insulation that surrounds the core of a fiber optic cable. The cable jacket is placed on top of the cladding.
contention:
A conflict when more than one computer, or more than one program in a single computer, tries to access the same resource at the same time. Different systems and networks respond in different ways; some require all parties to access the information again, while others operate on a first-come, first-served basis.
fall back:
A capability of a modem protocol that lets two modems lower their speeds to compensate for transmission problems.
global:
Action or characteristic related to the entity as a whole. For example, an action that affects an entire file, directory, program, or project.
background:
In multitasking environments such as Microsoft Windows, several applications can run simultaneously. One runs in the foreground while the others run in the background. The application or window in the foreground is active and can accept user input with a mouse, keyboard, or other device. Applications in the background cannot accept user input, but they still can run internal processes such as printing, reading and writing data to the hard drive, or performing calculations. In Windows, users can move background applications to the foreground by pressing the ALT-TAB key combination or by clicking a background window. Background also can refer to the color of the screen in DOS or Windows environments. Background colors can be selected according to the user's preference.
damping:
A technique that stifles the response of a circuit or device so it does not exceed certain limits. Damping is used to pace the flow of electricity or information within the computer.
backbone:
The part of a network that carries the majority of the data traffic. Backbones connect smaller networks, or nodes, together to create larger networks. Backbones usually transmit data at higher speeds than the rest of the network. On large networks, such as the Internet, there may be more than one backbone, all of which span long distances. On smaller networks, the backbone sometimes is called the bus.
gesture recognition:
Gesture recognition refers to the ability of a computer to read and accept human gestures as input. Instead of moving a mouse or keyboard, for instance, a simple pointing gesture might do the trick. Gesture recognition has a number of applications ranging from helping disabled individuals to video games. Gesture recognition usually involves the use of some sort of camera connected to a PC.
heatsink:
An object used to absorb and eliminate heat to prevent overheating and breaking down. Some computer components generate heat as they operate because they run so quickly. Computer manufacturers often install these small metal devices on powerful microprocessors.
balloon help:
A help system featured in many applications that uses small pop-up "balloons" of text that appear when the cursor is moved over certain spots in an application's interface. The balloons usually describe the function of a button on a toolbar. Similar to tool tips, which are rectangular pop-up help words that appear in many Windows-compatible programs.
data frame:
In a network system, a data frame is a packet of information transmitted as a single unit. This data frame exists only as it moves along, encapsulated, on the connecting cables or line. The information takes another form before and after the transmission.
magnetic media:
Any type of storage medium, such as tapes and diskettes, in which magnetic patterns represent stored values.
benchmark:
To test aspects of computer hardware or software against a known standard. When used as a noun, a benchmark usually is the result of such a test. Benchmarks are only useful if all computers or applications being tested are tested under the same conditions. When measuring the speed of computers, for instance, a benchmark utility program should attempt to perform the same operations with each machine. It also is necessary to know exactly what a benchmark is designed to test. A machine that is speedy at one type of mathematical operation could be slow at other tasks.
head slot:
The slot or opening at the top of a diskette that provides access to the magnetic diskette inside. The read/write head in a disk drive must directly access the magnetic diskette to store and retrieve information. To get to the magnetic diskette through the head slot on a 3.5-inch diskette, the drive moves a metal cover off to the side. It's simpler for a disk drive to get to the magnetic diskette inside a 5.25-inch diskette because the head slot is always uncovered.
ghosting:
When an object or icon dragged across the screen leaves a trace behind it.
tracking:
To synchronize the movement of an on-screen pointer or cursor with that of an input device such as a mouse. Also, the spacing between letters and words.
camper:
A term used in multiplayer console, PC, and Internet gaming that refers to a player who directs his or her game character to stay in roughly the same spot for the duration of the game. Sometimes campers stake out a spawn point (a location where others players returning or entering the game appear) to get an unfair kill. Other times a camper stands near a valuable item spawn point to horde that item. Campers are generally not considered to be breaking the rules, but the activities they engage in are frowned upon by most gamers.
target:
The destination file or device where source data is moved, copied, or stored, whether transferred internally or over communication lines. For example, if a user wishes to download a file from the A: drive into the C: drive, the A: drive is the source, and the C: drive is the destination and therefore the target. The target can also be the audience for whom a certain product is designed.
hit:
Each individual request made in a Web server's log. The number of hits a Web page receives equals the number of times a part of that page has been accessed. One Web page could receive as many hits as it has files to download. Typically a page will include an HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) text file and several other files including graphics, sound, video, and/or text. Thus a page made up of one HTML file and nine graphics files that receives 1,000 hits has been viewed 100 times. This information can be useful, but many advertisers are more interested in page impressions, which count the actual number of visits to a page.
key in:
To input information into a computer using a keyboard or numeric pad. Often used to describe the inputting of large amounts of data into a database.
jaggies:
Perpendicular lines on the edge of an on-screen image. Jaggies are caused by a monitor resolution setting lower than the one the application requires or by a font or graphic with poor scalability. Also called jags.
application (app):
An executable program capable of performing a specialized function other than system maintenance (which is performed by utilities). Games, educational programs, and communications software are all examples as are word processors, spreadsheets, and databases. Also called software.
Web camera:
These devices, also known as Web cams (or Webcams) and desktop digital video cameras, are small, focus on one object (such as a person sitting at a computer), and usually sit on top of a PC monitor. Web cams capture still images and video motion, and then transmit this data for such purposes as video conferencing, video email, and enhancing Web pages.
video editing:
In computing, the process of using software to manipulate images and sounds within a video media file. This can involve adding sound effects or music, shortening or rearranging segments, or adding transitions or other visual effects.
data compression:
Any method of condensing information so it can be stored in less space or transmitted in less time. Many large graphics and sound files are compressed so they can be downloaded faster. Although data compression can be done in many ways, a compression program generally looks for redundancies in a file, then compresses the identical pieces of data into one representative token. Also called data compaction.
cable segment:
A length of cable running between different PC components or between devices on a network. A segment can consist of a single cable or multiple cables connected to each other.
domain name:
The identifying title given to a system of computers, usually including the top domain and all of its subdomains. For example, a domain name, such as socrates.nd.edu, indicates that the Socrates network is found at the University of Notre Dame (nd), which is an educational institution (edu).
read-only:
Stored data that can be accessed but not altered. Usually, this term refers to information that can't be physically altered. For example, traditional CD-ROMs are created by a method of creating pits in the storage medium. Users usually can read, but not change, the information stored in this way. Read-only also may refer to the status of a file. For example, files can be placed in read-only status for security purposes. This status is used for documents such as newsletters that are available to all users on a corporate network.
card cage:
The area in the computer where cards are installed. The area usually has protective metal and mounting brackets. The term comes from an external, cage-like box where cards were on older computers.
skin:
In the computing world, there are typically two kinds of skins, one refers to images or themes that change the appearance of a user interface, and the other refers to the ability to change the look of a character in a video game. You can change the look for Web browsers such as Microsoft Internet Explorer and MP3 players such as WinAmp by adding a skin to it. Skins are usually based on a specific theme such as a movie or type of product. Video game skins are options that players can use to enhance the look of characters in a game by giving the character different clothes, for example, or by changing the character's gender or species. In both cases, end users can create their own skins and incorporate them into the programs.
account:
In communications, a registered or billed connection with a network, an online service, or an ISP (Internet service provider). Online accounts are used to keep track of connect time and monthly service costs. In multiuser networks and operating systems, accounts primarily are used for identification purposes.
case badge:
A small (usually about one inch square) sticker or metal plate applied to a computer case depicting the logo or image associated with the computer's manufacturer.
dongle:
A device that locks hardware or software to prevent unauthorized use. Often a small metal key that secures the hardware contained within a computer case. The dongle can prevent a computer from being booted.
temporary file:
A file designed to store information while a user is working with that file. Temporary files are retrieved from storage by an application and manipulated by the user, leaving the original file intact until the user saves it under the original file name. Temp files are created automatically by applications and usually are deleted automatically when they are no longer needed. The user can delete them, however, to recover disk space. Also called a temp file.
diode:
Any device or circuit that allows electrical currents to travel in one direction only.
blooming:
A term used to describe a monitor screen distortion that displays defocused images and reduced detail and sharpness in bright objects. Also refers to a problem with some digital camera sensors. Blooming occurs when camera sensors become overcharged, resulting in blurred details.
toolbar:
A row of boxes, often at the top of an application window, which control various functions of the software. The boxes often contain images that correspond with the function they control. In Microsoft Word, for example, the box that controls the print function contains an icon of a printer inside it. In most programs, toolbars can be turned on and off and often can be personalized with controls specific to an individual user's needs.
voice synthesis:
Technology that lets a computer “speak” in a human-sounding voice. A current application for voice synthesis is called text-to-speech. UC (unified communications) applications let a user retrieve her email messages over the phone, among other things. Using text-to-speech, the message server will “read” the user’s email to her.
blog hopping:
Often blogs will have links that lead to other blogs. Blog hopping involves following links from one blog to another while also visiting related sites, forums, and articles.
digital watermark:
Data inserted into copyrighted work that contains vital information, such as the author and copyright dates. Such watermarks can be viewed only with the correct software and are designed to be invisible to ordinary users.
abort:
To intentionally and prematurely terminate an active computer command.
clamshell:
The popular design for portable computers, with a shallow case hinged at the back so the screen folds up from the keyboard.
job:
A specified operation completed by the system. A job can be as simple as saving a document or as complex as organizing data into a report.
bomb:
To end prematurely, hang without allowing user input, or otherwise fail. Applications are said to bomb, while entire systems usually are said to crash. However, the terms can be used interchangeably. In Windows, the CTRL-ALT-DELETE key combination sometimes can regain control of or end an application that has bombed.
jump page:
An intermediate Web page that can prelude a Web site’s home page. When users click an advertisement, the ad tag sends them to a special site the advertiser has created to continue the ad. Jump pages often include rich media. Also called a splash page.
display image:
The collection of icons, graphics, and text displayed on-screen at a given time.
voice verification:
A biometric technology that measures the characteristics of a user’s voice against templates created during initial use. Users speak into a microphone, and the computer measures variables such as cadence, pitch, tone, and the shape of the speaker’s larynx to verify identities. Since users can easily change some of the variables involved at will, voice verification is not considered as accurate as other biometric techniques such as retinal scans or fingerprint verification. However, it is generally cheaper to implement than such methods because it doesn’t require special or costly hardware.
digitize:
The process of converting linear pictorial images into digital data for storage. For example, a scanner converts a non-digital image, such as a portrait or photograph, into a digital format of positively (1) and negatively (0) charged signals so the image can be stored on a hard drive. Likewise, a sound card can digitize a sound by translating it from analog (its actual sound) to digital (a form that can be read by a computer).
license agreement:
A packet of legal paperwork that allows users to purchase the use of a software company's product. It does not transfer ownership. Most license agreements appear on a software's package, and when the package is opened, users agree to the terms listed.
graphic:
The digital version of an image, photograph, or picture displayed on a monitor screen. The computer must change photographs or other images into the digital form of files for it to understand and work with them.
e-form:
An electronic form used to gather information about a user. E-forms are used to provide feedback, make inquiries, order merchandise, sign up for services, and more.
black level:
The darkest black a computer monitor is capable of producing. The black level in a good monitor should be purely black.
pin feed:
A kind of printer feed used with continuous-feed paper that has holes along the left and right sides. The tractor feed is named for the sprocketed wheels, which look like tractor wheels, that fit into the holes in the paper and pull the paper through the printer. Also called tractor feed.
single step:
To execute a program one step at a time. Usually used to find the flaw or error that is causing a program to run improperly.
leapfrog attack:
In a leapfrog attack, a malicious user "borrows" a user ID and password from any of a number of sources, such as a file containing IDs and passwords, and uses it to penetrate another system. A user can also use this tactic to make it difficult for other computers to trace him.
download count:
This number represents the number of times a software program has been downloaded from the Internet by users. It is often used to signify a program's popularity.
stylus:
A pen-shaped instrument used with graphics tablet or touch screen input devices to write or draw on the computer screen as on a sheet of paper.
dual-boot system:
A computer that has two OSes (operating systems) installed, each in a separate partition. When the user starts the computer, a menu appears from which the user can choose the desired OS.
game-play:
Refers to the way a gamer interacts with other elements in the game. Often found in game reviews, the term is also used as a means to rate the quality of the experience the player had while playing a particular game.
resample:
Refers to changing the resolution of a digital image. An image can be resampled up or down, meaning the resolution can be increased or decreased with the use of software.
mickey:
A mickey is the unit of measurement used in determining the speed and movement direction of a computer mouse. The speed of the mouse is determined by the ratio of how many pixels the cursor moves on the screen to how many centimeters the mouse moves on the mouse pad. Directional movement is referred to in terms of a horizontal mickey count and a vertical mickey count. One mickey is roughly 1/200 of an inch.
name caching:
A method of storage used by a router that keeps track of addresses and host names to provide quick access when future packets are sent.
split screen:
A software-activated division of the screen in which different documents can be displayed. Each document can be manipulated individually. Also called split window.
laganoia:
The fear of being ignored or ostracized in the online community brought about by delays in Internet chat rooms, message boards, and Internet telephony communications due to a network lag. People communicating by such means may experience laganoia if responses to their messages are a long time coming. Sometimes, though, other users are responding, but responses take a long time because of poor bandwidth or problems with transmittal from one portion of the Internet to another.
jabber:
A component of a network, typically a NIC (network interface card), that is operating incorrectly. A jabber will send a continuous stream of incorrect or meaningless data to the rest of the network, which could cause the entire network to stop working.
header:
A section of a message, ordinarily at the beginning, that routes it to its destination and often identifies the sender. Another type of header is text such as numbers or chapter titles that appear at the top of each page in a document. In data storage, a header lists a file's name, size, and the time and date of its creation or revision. In a database, a header is a record identifying the fields and kinds of information in the following data records.
Network cloud:
The unpredictable area of a network that data passes through. Clouds exist because data sent in packets can take various paths to reach the same end point.
device conflict:
A device conflict occurs when a device attempts to access a port that is in use by another device.
wet cell:
Early batteries often used some sort of liquid solution as an electrolyte. This liquid solution could spill or leak and was often harmful if not Handled properly. Dry cell batteries eventually replaced wet cell batteries because they were versatile and durable.
Baby Bill:
Slang for each of the smaller companies a breakup of Microsoft would create. When the Department of Justice declared Microsoft a monopoly, it proposed That Microsoft split into two companies, or Baby Bills, an applications-based company and an operating systems-based company.
shadow printing:
A printing technique that produces a replica of each character in a lighter shade and slightly off center so it appears the letter has a shadow.
dirty power:
A term used to describe an increase or decrease in electrical power that can damage the circuitry of a computer. Dirty power can be in the form of spikes or surges.
kiosk:
A computer and a display screen that display information in public areas. Kiosks can display simple rotating graphics or HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)pages. More complicated, interactive kiosks allow a user to access the information they want. Kiosks are used to provide information about a specific location,to provide directions, or to provide countless other services to the public. An ATM is a good example of a kiosk.
failover:
To automatically switch operation from a defective device to a good one. Essentially, the work completed by the faulty device fails over onto the one thatis working properly.
data signal:
The form in which information is transmitted within a computer or a network. Data signals usually are binary codes transmitted between devices. Data signals might consist of viewable information, such as documents or graphics, or internal computer information, such as virus checks or control characters.
generation:
A computer introduced as a result of a technological breakthrough. Hardware, such as microprocessors, also can be classified in generations. For instance,Intel's Pentium processor line makes up the generation following the company's 80486 CPU (central processing unit) line. Programmers may also refer togenerations of commands, implying a lineage of processes (one process that may give rise to other processes). When users store files in directories and subdirectories, this relation is sometimes expressed in generations (with a grandmother, mother, and daughter directory or file).
jack in:
Slang term for logging in to a computer or network.
tablet computer:
Like a notebook computer, a tablet computer is a portable PC that runs on batteries or AC (alternating current), is 1 or 2 inches thick, and is roughly the width and length of a writing tablet or notebook (8.5 x 11 inches). Although notebook computers typically have an LCD (liquid-crystal display) screen that's attached to the notebook via hinges, a tablet computer typically has a touch-sensitive LCD screen that is part of the main device.
Gopher:
A menu-driven, search-and-retrieval tool that helps Internet users locate information online through menus, which are itemized according to collections of information and stored databases. The menus also may lead to other menus, files, and search tools. Developed at the University of Minnesota in 1991 and named after the school's mascot, the Golden Gophers, Gopher lets users retrieve data over the Internet without using complicated commands and addresses.
stuck pixel:
A pixel in an LCD (liquid-crystal display) monitor that doesn't work correctly and is always turned on (or stuck as) a certain color, usually red, green, or blue.
nagware:
A pop-up box that nags the user to update, register, or pay for the software. Nags can occur at random while using the software. Nags can also occur when you start or close the software. Usually, the user must perform some sort of action to close the pop-up box.
wafer:
A flat disk of silicon crystal sliced from a larger piece. Used in semiconductor chip manufacturing, these disks are approximately 1/30th-inch to 1/50th-inch thick and 3 to 6 inches in diameter. Made to hold circuitry components, wafers are eventually enclosed in another substance, such as plastic or metal.
macro virus:
A virus that travels as a macro embedded in documents, especially Microsoft Word and Excel documents. Such viruses remain dormant until the infected file is opened. Then, if the virus is malicious, the virus may damage other files, perform a prank, or infect other files. Some macro viruses will delete all files in a directory or your entire hard drive. Others are more benign, simply attaching their code to documents. Once an infected file is opened, the virus will usually infect all files that are opened afterward until the virus is removed by software that disinfects the appropriate template file. Macro viruses are quickly spread through email messages or shared files. Antivirus scanning software should be used and updated so macro viruses can be caught before they infect a system.
online profiling:
A method used by some Web sites and marketing companies to track the surfing habits of visitors to their sites. Online profiling is common among shopping sites. It may include noting which products a visitor appears interested in or buys. This data is then used to target products and services to the person visiting the site. The data may be collected with or without the permission and knowledge of visitors to the Web site.
compaction:
The act of defragmenting information stored in memory, thereby arranging data so the largest free space possible is created.
Translator:
A tool to convert one language into another that more closely resembles machine code. Translators are also called language processors and include assemblers, compilers, interpreters, and preprocessors.
shortcut key (accelerator key):
A key or key combination that executes a specific function or command within an application or operating system. For example, the F7 key in Microsoft Word 6.0 initiates the spelling checker while the F12 key initiates the Save As command. Also called an application shortcut key. A shortcut key can be specified with a specific software package, such as using the ALT key plus the first letter of a pull-down menu option, or it could be a user-created macro.
modding:
The act of modifying a piece of hardware or software to perform a function not intended or authorized by the original manufacturer. In gaming, changing a game's code to alter game play; for example, adding new content to existing games, or "total conversion" mods which change the game significantly.
gamma testing:
A term for the expected customer feedback after a product's official release. Gamma testing is a play on the term "beta testing", which is the testing software or hardware undergoes before release. Some critics derisively use the term to chastise companies that knowingly release an undertested product, leaving customers to find and report bugs.
yoyo mode:
A slang expression for a PC that alternates between working and nonworking states. One minute a PC is up and working, the next minute it's down.
graphics tablet:
A rectangular, flat input device that controls an on-screen cursor by tracing a finger or a stylus across the surface of the tablet. A graphics tablet is used instead of a mouse or trackball when more intricate cursor control is needed, such as when using a drawing or graphics program. Also called a digitizer, digitizing tablet, or drawing tablet.
radio button:
A circle that represents choices in a common option list form in graphical user interfaces. Only one item in a list with radio buttons can be selected at a time. To select an item in such a list, the user clicks the radio button in front of the desired option, and a dot appears in the circle of the radio button to show the option has been selected. The name radio button comes from the fact that these buttons are similar to those on a radio; choosing one automatically undoes the previous choice.
Half-life:
The term comes from scientific disciplines, where it is most often used as a measurement for the amount of time a radioactive substance takes to lose half of its atoms. In technology, it refers to the amount of time that it takes for a storage device to loose half of its effectiveness.
email spoofing:
By altering the headers in an email message, someone with the proper know-how can make an email message appear as if it came from someone or somewhere else.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol:
the protocol most often used to send email) doesn't include much security, making it possible for people to forge, or spoof, the origins of the email.
video buffer:
A section of memory that holds information before it is sent to the monitor. The video buffer also called a screen buffer or regeneration buffer is usually a part of the video card.
Smart Tags:
Smart Tags are a technology found in Microsoft Office XP. Smart Tags can be used to link portions of a document with other documents or information on the Internet or company intranet. Microsoft was playing with the idea of adding Smart Tags to the next version of Internet Explorer. The plan met with some resistance from Web designers and others who were afraid Microsoft would abuse the Smart Tag technology.
back door:
An entry way into a password-protected system that bypasses having to actually use a password. In some systems, designers usually deliberately leave a back door so technicians can enter a system later for maintenance or other purposes.
misconvergence:
When one or more of the three-color beams inside a monitor do not align on the screen. This is often seen as a blurring of color onto parts of the monitor that should not have it. Also called convergence error.
aperture ring:
A rotating ring usually just behind the focusing ring on a camera. This ring lets you control the amount of light you let into the camera. Only professional-level digital cameras currently have aperture rings.
optimal resolution:
Usually relating to monitors, the screen pixel resolution and refresh rate the manufacturer recommends for optimal, flicker-free performance.
halftone:
In desktop publishing, a halftone image is created using dots. Changes are made in brightness and tone. For example, black-and-white dots create different shades of gray (more black dots will create a darker area). When all these levels and layers of gray are printed, they blend and form the image. The higher the resolution of the image and printer, the smoother the image of black-and-white dots and the greater number of gray tones possible.
vulnerability scanning:
Vulnerability scanning automatically examines a network for known security holes that could be exploited by outsiders to gain access to a network. The software contains a database of known vulnerabilities and examines a network for these vulnerabilities. Vulnerability scanning is typically employed by companies and corporations looking to close security holes before they're exploited.
cable connector:
The plug at either cable end. One end plugs into the computer, and the other plugs into the device being hooked up to the computer. Connectors are either male (containing pins) or female (containing sockets). The type of cable often determines the shape of the connectors. For example, most cable connectors for mice or keyboards are round, while printer cables have trapezoidal connectors.
Encrypting A File:
When you encrypt a file, you translate the original contents into a code to keep the file secret. Data encryption software uses advanced algorithms to encode a file's contents so they can't be read by anyone who doesn't have the proper key to unscramble them. Encryption algorithms are mathematical, or they apply other rules to files, which systematically change the contents of those files. When children pass secret messages in class, they might use the alphabet replacement method where they write "a" for "b" and "b" for "c" and so on. The shifting of the letters is the algorithm, and nobody could crack the code without knowing which or how many letters were shifted. Encrypting data of any type involves processing a message through an algorithm to scramble it.
balance:
A control feature often found in computer or stereo speakers. The balance control adjusts the amount of sound you hear from the right or left speakers. Generally, the balance should be adjusted so that the sound level from both speakers is the same.
tab:
An indention at the beginning of a line to signify a new paragraph in a document. Usually about five spaces, tabs are primarily used to ensure equal spacing from line to line. There is also a tab called the write-protect tab on diskettes. When in a certain position, this tab prevents data on the diskette from being overwritten or erased. See 3.5-inch diskette. See 5.25-inch diskette.
back up:
To copy a file or files to an alternate location so a safe copy remains if the original is destroyed or damaged. A single file or an entire drive can be backed up if media of sufficient size are available. Because of their large capacity, magnetic tape drives often are used for backing up information. Backup programs often save files in a compressed format that occupies less space on the backup media. This means that to view the backed-up files, the program that backed them up must be used to restore them to their original form. See restore.
hot swap:
To replace a computer component while the computer is on. This ability is especially important for mainframe computers or servers in a client-server system that can't afford downtime. These computers generally have redundant parts, such as hard drives and power supplies, to ensure reliability, and these parts can be switched out if they fail. Storage systems on client-server networks also often use hot swap functions for the same reasons. For personal computers, the advent of the USB (Universal Serial Bus) standard lets users hot swap peripherals into USB ports; the computer automatically recognizes them without rebooting.
walled garden:
An environment on the Internet that prohibits users from accessing specific material or Web sites. Such an environment may not make it impossible to access this information, but it makes it more difficult. For example, in 1999, America Online's Kid's Channel in the United Kingdom created a walled garden to shield children from unsuitable material.
doctor blade:
In laser printers, a doctor blade is a straight edge set a precise distance from the developer roller. It ensures that just the right amount of toner sticks to the roller. The doctor blade scrapes away any excess toner.
dye sublimation:
A printing process in which a printhead heats tiny sections of a colored ribbon to transfer ink to the paper. A dye sublimation printer may use three or four colored ribbons or perhaps a single ribbon with differently colored sections. See thermal transfer printer.
card:
A printed circuit board or adapter that plugs into a computer to add a new function such as modem capabilities or hardware device support. The term also refers to the punched cards used for data storage and entry devices in early computing. See punched card.
dummy:
A temporary file, document, program, process, or alphanumeric character that is used to hold a place for another file, document, program, process, or character. When the actual information is available, the dummy information is deleted. Dummy is often required as a place holder when a program cannot deal with blank spaces while waiting for data to arrive.
suite:
A program package that combines a number of other, seemingly distinct, programs into a single package. Also called integrated software.
character string:
A series of characters treated as text. Character strings can contain numbers and letters.
crack:
To break into a computer system, typically with the intent to steal or otherwise manipulate information, or to do damage to the system itself.
direct access:
The ability of a computer to locate and retrieve data immediately from a storage device, without having to start at the beginning and read all the data.
multisession:
A way of recording CD-ROM discs that adds data in blocks instead of recording the entire disc at once. For example, half of the disc could be written one day and the rest written a few weeks later. Some older CD-ROM drives can't read multisession discs. This type of recording is used by some CD-R (CD-recordable) drives and all CD-RW (CD-rewriteable) drives.
diffuse:
In an image-editing program, this is a technique used to displace colors in an image, giving it an impressionistic look.
wizard:
A feature that provides step-by-step instructions to lead users through certain tasks in applications. Unlike online help menus, which often must be read before executing a task or printed out, wizards use dialog boxes that walk users through each step of a process. Also can describe an extraordinary programmer.
workbook:
A term used by Microsoft Excel to describe a spreadsheet file. A workbook can contain numerous spreadsheets in a single file.
halt:
The command issued to immediately shut down a Linux system. This command is usually called by issuing the shutdown command.
vacuum tube:
A glass tube from which all gas has been removed, creating a vacuum. Such tubes containing electrodes for controlling electron flow were used in early computers (before semiconductors) as a switch or an amplifier. Vacuum tubes allowed digital computations at what was then considered a high speed.
rocker switch:
Unlike a traditional switch that trips when it is switched, a rocker switch rocks between the on and off positions, hence its name. When one side of the switch is moved to a down position, the other side is always up. Switching on the up side will change the position of the two and trip the switch. You can find rocker switches on many kinds of computers and computer add-ons, including various power devices, surge protectors, monitors, and others.
quarantine:
To place a file that is infected with a virus or otherwise poses a threat in a directory where it cannot do any harm. Functions that divert threatening files to a quarantined directory are typically part of antivirus software.
hello packet:
A packet sent over a network by a system containing information such as the IP (Internet Protocol) address of the system, to indicate the system is ready to receive and transmit data.
terminal:
A set of hardware normally composed of a keyboard and a monitor that lets users communicate with the internal CPU (central processing unit), which is the "brain" of the computer.
electrode:
A conductor through which current flows. Batteries, for instance, have two electrodes, the positive electrode is also known as the anode and the negative electrode is known as the cathode.
null cycle:
The absolute minimum length of time required to completely execute a program without introducing new data or extraneous processing.
lapping:
The process of smoothing, finishing or achieving an extremely close tolerance on the heat-absorbing side of the heatsink, with the idea that heat will transfer more efficiently with a tighter fit between the heatsink and heat-generating component.
reboot:
To restart the computer and reload the operating system. Many types of computers reboot when the key combination CTRL-ALT-DELETE is pressed. In Windows 95 and newer, rebooting can also be done by selecting Shut Down from the Start menu, then clicking Restart The Computer. Rebooting is sometimes the only way to regain control over a computer that is frozen due to error. Rebooting a computer, however, causes all unsaved data in open applications to be lost.
cold fault:
An error that takes place after starting a computer. This failure usually is caused by a mis-alignment within the computer by the expansions and contractions that occur because of temperature fluctuations when the computer is turned on and off. To avoid this, some users leave the computer running when not in use and only shut off the monitor.
prompt:
A symbol indicating that the computer is waiting for you to enter information in order to continue.
workstation:
A setup composed of a computer and peripheral devices that enable someone to do their work. In terms of processing power, workstations fall between personal computers and minicomputers. Also can designate any computer connected to a network.
vertex:
In computing, 3-D graphics are created by combining numerous triangles to form a desired shape. The term “vertex” typically refers to the individual points or corners of these triangles—the points where two sides of a triangle meet. These vertices are, in fact, the very “virtual matter” that creates a 3-D object.
kiloflop:
1,000 floating point operations.
warping:
An effect in some digital imaging software programs where algorithms are applied to an image, bending it, and ultimately giving it a spherical shape.
hybrid:
In computers, hybrid refers to a device that is made of two or more technologies. A hybrid computer has both analog and digital capabilities. It uses both analog-to-digital conversion and digital-to-analog conversion so it can read and produce analog and digital data. Robots, for instance, are hybrid computer systems. They accept a command in digital format (the program instructs the machine using binary data) and execute a function in analog format (the robot walks). On the flip side, the robot might use an analog sensor to recognize an object, but it will use a digital computer to process what to do with it. ADCs (analog–to-digital converters) transform factors, such as temperature, motion, pressure, sound, and images, into a binary code the robot can understand.
thermal adhesive:
A glue-like substance specifically designed to connect metal pieces and conduct heat between them. Thermal adhesive is made of substances such as aluminum or silver and is available in syringes or tubes with applicators. Thermal adhesive is not used to connect certain sensitive components; for example, the substance is not intended for attaching a heatsink to a processor.
hub:
A hub is a piece of equipment that provides a connection point for a group of computers and peripherals, and it works on a low-level network protocol layer. Just like a wheel on a bicycle, a hub is a central point from which the spokes, or in this case, cables, fan out. Hubs are commonly used in LANs (local-area networks), where two or more computers are sharing the same devices, such as printers, Internet connection, scanners, and so on. The cables for these devices are plugged into ports in the hub. Data is sent to the hub, which then distributes it to other areas on the network. For example, someone working on a computer can send a file to a printer, but that request must be channeled through the hub before it reaches the printer. Most hubs support the Ethernet standard, meaning the hub accepts an Ethernet cable, which also plugs into an NIC (network interface card). There are also non-Ethernet hubs, including Token Ring. A hub can be passive, active, or intelligent. Passive hubs simply accept an electric signal from an incoming packet and broadcast it to the rest of the network. An active hub, sometimes called a repeater, amplifies the signal before sending it to the rest of the network. Amplification guarantees that the signal has enough power to make it throughout the network. An intelligent hub, or manageable hub, is similar to an active hub, but it has extra features. For instance, it provides bridging, routing, and switching and supports remote management and virtual LANs.
The term “hub topology” is used to describe how larger networks are arranged. A hub topology has a main area from which outgoing lines run, and each line has connection ports for attaching devices. ISPs (Internet service providers) use this format for providing access to their subscribers.
Telenet:
One of the largest PDNs (public data networks) in the United States. Telenet serves as the communications backbone for many online services.
keycap:
The part of a key on the keyboard seen in normal use. Under the plastic keycap marked by a symbol is the actual key, which is a small switch.
zettabyte:
A unit of measurement equal to 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 bytes, 2 to the 70th power bytes, or roughly 10 to the 21st power. It's also the equivalent of 1,024 exabytes.
zoo virus:
A term used to describe computer viruses that exist only in research labs. Used primarily as tools for scientists and programmers, these infectors (estimated to number at least 20,000) make up the majority of existing computer viruses. However, they pose no danger to the public’s computer systems until released “in the wild.
XY coordinates:
Refers to points along the horizontal and the vertical axes of the computer screen, usually starting in the lower-left corner of the screen. Each pixel (the color dots that make up the screen display) on the display screen has a location on the map of the screen that identifies it to the programs that make the screen addressable (meaning the mouse can tell where it is on the screen and let the application know). Generally, the x-coordinate is the number of pixels going across the screen and the y-coordinate is the number of pixels going up the screen. When the pair intersects, that intersection represents a specific location on the screen.
When programming Web sites and Web-deployed applications, it is common to define the location of the pixel (or set of pixels) in relation to a specific area of the screen. This is the method used to create areas on the screen that will respond to the click or double-click of the mouse. The programmer defines an area that will be sensitive to the mouse activity by outlining the XY coordinates that constitute the boundaries of the area and then linking that area to a URL (uniform resource locator) that contains additional information that the programmer or designer wishes the user to see. Because there are millions of pixels on each screen, the programmer relies on software that creates the coordinate mapping, rather than trying to map each coordinate manually.
This approach creates what’s known as an image map on the Web page. The “map” is really a graphic (it could, in fact, be an image of an actual map) with its coordinates mapped and with sets of coordinates linked to other HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) pages. The image map thus serves as a sort of menu. For example, in the case of a mapped picture of an actual United States map, clicking on one state might take the user to information about that state, while clicking on another state takes the user to a different page. The image could also simply be a product photo that links to information about a product
kermit:
A FTP (File Transfer Protocol) that works over phone lines and is noted for its relatively slow speed and high accuracy. Most communications programs allow users to select Kermit as the protocol for a specific transfer or as the default protocol for all transfers.
hacker:
A technically sophisticated user who spends a lot of time at a computer. It refers to a person who writes computer programs, "hacking" up the digital code. Hacker is often erroneously used, instead of cracker, to refer to those who illegally break into computer systems to do damage, steal secrets, or enter simply because they can.
backside bus:
Another term for the data bus that runs between the (CPU) central processing unit and the L2 (level 2) cache memory. The backside bus is typically faster than the frontside bus because cache memory usually offers faster access times than system memory, allowing the bus to closer approximate the speed of the CPU.
nanowire:
A wire that is one nanometer (one thousandth of one millimeter) thick. Nanowires are used as semiconductors, barcodes, and LEDs (light-emitting diodes), depending on their chemical composition.
nastygram:
The nastiest form of nastygram, an ill-tempered, malicious, or disapproving e-mail message, has its roots in Unix systems, where users on different terminals share one large computer.
It was possible to send e-mail containing computer code that would freeze up the recipient’s terminal or computer or execute as a program in order to do something prankish or even damaging. Known as letterbombs, these nastygrams were the ancestors of the modern e-mail attacks that try to trick recipients into downloading and running attached virus programs.
The term also refers to a more formal and legitimate style of unwanted e-mail in the form of a rebuke from an online authority. An example would be a warning for breaking some rule of a newsgroup or e-mail list, such as an off-topic posting or letting an argument get out of hand.
Programmers have sometimes used the term nastygram to refer to an e-mail message that expresses dissatisfaction or criticism from a client or from superiors within the company. In this context, nastygram carries the connotation of criticism that’s overly nitpicky or otherwise unfair.
Less commonly, nastygram may refer to automated unpleasant e-mail, such as bounce notices to let you know that an e-mail message you sent is undeliverable. But as mail handling robots have no ill will in their messages, however unwelcome they may be, the reference to automatic mail as nastygrams is often facetious.
myria:
A metric prefix meaning ten thousand. A myriabyte would be 10KB or 0.01MB. The symbols for myria are ma or my.
SPDIF:
Sony Philips Digital Interface Format A type of interface used to connect a variety of electrical components, primarily audio devices.
ATAPI:
Advanced Technology Attachment Packet Interface (ATAPI)
An extension to the EIDE (Enhanced IDE) interface that supports CD-ROM and tape drives, which were left out of the original EIDE and IDE standards. Also known as Fast AT Attachment (Fast ATA), this is an updated version of the Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) storage interface that works with hard drives and CD-ROM drives. It can shuttle data to and from the drive three to four times faster than the IDE standard (transferring data between 11MB and 16.6MB per second) and can support data storage devices that store up to 8GB more than IDE drives. Also known as ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment), the EIDE standard lets storage devices, such as hard drives and CD-ROM drives, connect to computers. Initially, EIDE supported drives of approximately 8GB in size, and it supported data speed rates between 11MBps (megabytes per second) and 16.6MBps. Once the 8GB limit was overcome by better support from a PC’s BIOS (Basic Input/Output System; the underlying software that lets a PC use basic hardware), the theoretical limit for ATA drives became 137GB, but users can expect this limit will be breached, just like all the others. Currently, the largest ATA or EIDE drives are about 120GB in size.
EIDE is an upgrade to the older IDE (or Advanced Technology Attachment) standard, which supported drives of 528MB and was only one-third to one-fourth as fast as first-generation EIDE. The primary competitor to the EIDE standard is SCSI (Small Computer System Interface), which is common in Apple computers; SCSI generally allows greater speeds, but it is expensive and more difficult to use. The latest descendents of the standard are Ultra ATA-66, which offers speeds up to 66MBps, and Ultra ATA-100, which offers speeds up to 100MBps. Also, keep on the lookout for Serial ATA, a new standard that should offer even greater speeds.
Serial ATA (SATA):
A new interface for internal devices such as hard drives, debuting in 2002. Serial ATA, initially having a theoretical maximum throughput of 150MBps, allows better signal timing and higher speeds than the parallel EIDE standards such as Ultra ATA/133/100/66. SATA also enables easier device setup and better airflow within the computer case with less obstructive data cables. Industry analysts expect SATA eventually to supplant EIDE.
complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS):
An electronic component used for RAM and fast data switching. CMOS semiconductors are made of two metal-oxide field effect transistors for high speed and low power use. However, they can be damaged by static electricity. (Pronounced see-moss.) A type of computer chip that requires very little power. This makes it particularly suitable for use in notebook computers, which need to get as much life as possible out of each battery charge, and for the computer memory holding system startup information.
PCs contain a CMOS memory chip that stores information the computer needs each time it boots up. This includes things such as the date and time, as well as information about the system configuration—how many disk drives and what kind, how much memory, what type of processor, and so on. Without this information, a computer is very limited in how it can operate.
Computer memory requires power, so most memory empties out when a computer is powered down. Because the CMOS chip requires so little power, it is run continuously off a battery inside the computer. A single battery is usually enough to power the CMOS for the life of the computer. Therefore, whenever the computer is powered on, the information in the CMOS can load right in for immediate use by the computer's BIOS (Basic Input/ Output System).
When you turn on your computer, you usually see a lot of information flash on the screen about memory, video card in use, etc. The computer is actually running diagnostic tests on its components and initializing those components for use, based on information pulled up from the CMOS.
chapter:
In DVDs, a chapter is each independent section on the disc. This can be compared to tracks on CDs.
portable language:
A type of programming language used to create software for more than one type of computer system.
abscissa:
The x coordinate on an (x, y) graph. See Ordinate.
cable matcher:
A device that lets a cable be attached to a device that requires slightly different wire connections.
femto:
An International System of Units (SI) prefix meaning one quadrillionth, or 10 to the negative 15th power. For example, a femtosecond would be one quadrillionth of a second, or 1/1,000,000,000,000,000th of a second. The symbol for femto- is f.
nesting:
The placement of one object within another. In computing, this refers to the placement of a graphic in a word processing document or a text document within a database. A set of instructions also can be nested in another set of instructions or within a document activated when selected. Programmers also can nest programming loops within other programming loops.
necrocam:
A Web camera positioned in the coffin of a deceased person. The term comes from the Dutch film of the same name, which used the idea as a way to comment on the extremes to which technology can lead us.
trunk:
In telephone systems, a trunk is a connection between two main switching stations. The trunk carries several lines of voice and data transmissions simultaneously.
quit:
To end a session with a program by purposely closing the application.
ubiquity:
A quality attributed to anything that seems to be everywhere at all times. Often used in technology circles to describe technologies in widespread use. Some may say mobile phones, for instance, are ubiquitous.
Aloha:
A data transmission standard developed in the late 1960s by Norman Abramson and a team of researchers at the University of Hawaii. Using TDMA (time division multiple access) technology, Aloha transmitted data in packets containing addressing information, and in the event of a collision the data was retransmitted. Aloha was the basis for Alohanet, a precursor to the Ethernet network standard.
long-haul:
A communications device, such as a modem, that can transmit and receive signals from distances of more than one mile. Most modems are long-haul modems. Compare to short-haul.
wiki:
A wiki is a type of collaborative blog. Instead of one author providing and editing content, any user can post content and edit the content of others.
Mathematica:
Computers are obviously good at crunching numbers and allowing for detailed simulations. Until Mathematica was released in 1988, however, no single program could harness all that power and let scientists, engineers, theorists, and programmers bend it to their will. Individual applications were available before then that were designed to perform specific tasks, but Mathematica let just about anybody do just about anything math-related.
Stephen Wolfram designed Mathematica and Wolfram Research, a company he founded in 1987. The software completely revolutionized the field of technical computing, providing users with a single package that could perform practically any mathematical calculation. From physics calculations and astronomical star charts to electrical circuit design and economics equations, if it involves numbers, Mathematica can handle it. From the very beginning, Mathematica could handle symbolic equations and had powerful graphing abilities, and the product has improved steadily over the years, adding more features while retaining its ease-of-use. The core of the software is a powerful programming language that lets users write programs in a variety of ways. Several add-on packages also are available that give people in specific fields tools they can use to do their jobs more efficiently. Optica, for example, is a package that makes it easy to solve optical engineering problems without having to write any fundamental programs to get started. The software also links directly into other programs, such as Microsoft Excel, letting users apply Mathematica’s power to nearly any other application that involves numbers. It can even be integrated into Web pages to create interactive graphs and calculations. This connectivity works both ways, as output from Mathematica can be easily sent to an external program, such as an application designed to render high-resolution 3D graphs.
More than 20,000 copies of Mathematica were sold within months of its original release, and the number of users today has expanded into the millions. Professionals now view the software as an indispensable tool, and students use it in many high school and college math courses. An ever-increasing number of Web designers use an offshoot of the original software, webMathematica, to add interactive calculations to their sites.
snow:
A cast of pixels on a monitor that appear as small, white, flickering dots. Snow can be caused by simple interference or by conflicts within the video memory.
cold boot:
To turn on the computer after it has been shut off. Also called cold start. Compare to warm boot. See boot.
unbundled:
Software or hardware that once was included with several other products (a bundle) but was removed from the packaging or is sold separately. For example, games and word processing applications often are bundled with new computers and included in the price. When the product is sold separately, however, it is considered unbundled. Compare to bundled software.
jam:
A signal from an Ethernet device alerting all other devices that a collision has occurred and to stop transmitting. The purpose of a jam is to clear the network's data transmission lines and have all devices begin attempting to send data again. See collision.
texel:
Texture element. The smallest component of a texture in a 3-D image.
daisywheel:
A printing mechanism shaped like a round disk with a number of spokes, or arms, that extend from its center. Each arm has a fully formed character on its tip. The arm hits the ribbon, and the impact makes a mark on the paper. One daisywheel contains all the characters for one font only; a change in fonts requires a different daisywheel. Daisywheels are found on a daisywheel printer. Also called print wheel.
firewall:
Software or hardware that limits or restricts certain kinds of computer access from a network or other outside source. A router is a good example of a hardware device that often has a built-in firewall. Firewalls are used to thwart would-be hackers from infiltrating computer systems. See hacker.
wand:
A pen-like scanning device, a wand is commonly used with such hardware peripherals as bar code readers. Also used to describe a stylus used with graphics tablets. To scan text with a wand, a user passes the tip of the wand over text; the optical scanning mechanism in the wand takes the text it has "read" and passes it along to the computer for processing.
metadata:
Metadata is technically data about data. NTFS (NT file system) uses the concept of metadata frequently. In NTFS metadata maintains information about the various files on the system including a file's location on the hard drive, file name, and security information. Metadata may also track information about the hard drive in general. For instance, bad clusters that can no longer reliably hold information are tracked using metadata. Most metadata resides in the Master File Table or MFT although, technically, the MFT itself is a metadata file. Media metadata is a type of metadata many users may recognize. For instance, an MP3's (Moving Pictures Experts Group Audio Layer 3's) metadata may contain information such as song title, artist, and album. This data is visible in most media players as well as in the file's properties. See NT file system (NTFS).
safety ring:
A plastic ring that fits into a reel of magnetic tape to prevent its files from being overwritten or erased. See file protect ring.
vendor ID:
A number that allows plug-and-play systems to identify an added device and configure it properly. The number indicates the device's manufacturer, model, and version number.
exit:
A command or option that will let users leave and close a program. It may require a special keystroke or key combination in a DOS program, or it may require users to select the Exit option from the File menu in a Windows program.
unarchive:
To restore files from an archive or backup to their original location, usually a hard drive. Compare to archive file.
pack:
To compress data, or "smash" it together by taking out excess space, so it occupies less space when stored or transmitted. Compressed data must be decompressed before it can be used again. Compare to unpack. See data compression.
garbage:
Although an unsophisticated user tends to denounce any type of unreadable images that appear on his screen as garbage, the true definition of garbage is meaningless, unnecessary data the computer places in the RAM. Garbage collection is a system for automatically reclaiming this storage space in programs, ensuring that systems aren't needlessly tied up by preserving RAM data that is no longer needed (The failure to clean up memory that is no longer being used is called a memory leak). Such garbage collection, which frees programmers from having to write software that explicitly requests storage and returns it to the system when no longer needed, is also known as automatic storage (or memory) allocation.
A garbage collection program must first identify unneeded data and then make the storage area it occupies available for use by the computer again. An object in a program is considered live if the program might access that object in the future. If not, the object is considered dead. Many garbage collection programs consider a given object dead if the program has eliminated all pointers to it. Some programs keep track of the pointers on each object and designate it dead when the count falls to zero. Others keep track of which objects are considered live and eliminate dead objects not within that group.
Early garbage collection programs only kicked in after the amount of memory used reached a particular limit. Once across that threshold, the program would pause to examine all its memory, causing delays. More modern garbage collection programs kick in every time memory is allocated or when there are pauses in activity. It was first developed for languages such as LISP (list processing), a high-level programming language developed in 1960 for use in artificial intelligence applications that computes with symbolic expressions rather than numbers. Such garbage collection programs were also used with the language SNOBOL (String Oriented Symbolic Language), an early list-processing language developed in the early 1960s. More recently, it has appeared in embedded languages such as PostScript and object-oriented languages such as Java.
The third definition for garbage centers on a widely used acronym within the computer industry GIGO (garbage in, garbage out). That admonition warns all computer users that, no matter how advanced the machine, inputting faulty or substandard information will only result in more problematic data. Another interpretation of the term is garbage in, gospel out, warning users against placing too much faith in computers that may be handling faulty data.
write error:
An error that occurs during the transfer of data.
Close Window
Recognizable and memorable domain names that include words or combinations of words that relate to the person or organization that owns the domain. Most domain names are vanity domains.
cache miss:
A request for data not found in cache memory. When this occurs, the computer must search the main memory to find the data.
quiesce:
To render a computer, application, or other resource inactive without removing the item from the system. In this way, technicians can reactivate the resource much more quickly than they could if they had to reinstall it.
printer engine:
The part of the printer that determines the resolution, speed, and overall quality of the printing. Most engines are replaceable self-contained units; printers from different manufacturers often use the same engine.
word spamming:
Repeating a word on a Web page in an attempt to increase its relevancy when people perform a Web search. This attempt is usually in vain, as search engines typically locate information using methods other than a simple word search.
warm link:
The ability to update data, such as a number in a spreadsheet cell, when it is being displayed in a different application, such as a chart or a graph. This lets the user change the data in the originating application and see the results in other applications that use the same data.
speed dial:
Speed dial refers to the ability of a telephone or cell phone to store a given telephone number in its internal memory. With a speed dial-enabled phone, a user can assign frequently dialed numbers to a short button sequence or to dedicated speed dial buttons and then press these buttons to quickly call that number.
physical topology:
Physical topology is the placement of hardware on a LAN (local-area network). This is where the connections are set up and the location of cables, switches, etc.
storage area network (SAN):
A section of an overall network (either LAN [local-area network] or WAN [wide-area network]) specifically reserved for storing data. SANs consist almost entirely of storage hardware. Servers connected to the network are gateways to the SAN subnetwork, where information can be stored and accessed.
Create A Shortcut:
To add shortcut icons to your Desktop in Window XP, click Start and All Programs. Find the application for which you want a shortcut and right-click it. From the pop-up menu, click Create Shortcut. This will create a shortcut that you can drag to your Desktop. In Windows Vista, click Start and All Programs and find the application for which you want a shortcut. Next, right-click the application, choose Send To, and click Desktop (Create Shortcut) in the resulting menu.
keyboard:
One of the main input devices used by computers, a PC's keyboard looks very similar to the keyboards of electric typewriters. Computer keyboards, however, usually include extra keys such as the function keys, cursor keys, and a number pad.
help:
A menu item in most programs that provides electronic assistance. Textbook-like help is available for searching and may be context-sensitive, meaning the help may change according to the type of function or program users are working on when they select the help option. Although most help files are usually portions of the manual put on-screen, some help options also may include tutorials and tips on how to use the program.
yoke:
An input device used with computer games, typically with flight simulation games, that allows the user to fly up or down, back or forward by pulling or pushing the steering wheel-like device.
RAM:
Random-access memory gives a computer a fast storage area for the programs you run. Without enough RAM, the computer feels sluggish because it has to use the hard drive instead. A new system should have at least 2GB of RAM. If your computer runs Windows Vista, however, you should consider 3GB or even 4GB.
sort field:
The information category that a sort process uses to organize the database information. For example, "last name" might be a sort field.
100Base-FX:
A term used to describe 100Mbps (megabits per second) Fast Ethernet network segments that use fiber optic cable rather than twisted-pair wire and support full duplex (the simultaneous sending and receiving of data) transmission. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) standard that includes 100Base-FX standards is 802.3u.
Tradigital:
A play on the word “tradition” that means the passing down of technology-related information, through word of mouth, in digital documents, and by other means.
text cursor:
A blinking horizontal or vertical line or a square that denotes where new characters or changes will appear in a text field.
on-screen display (OSD):
A list of image quality adjustments on the screen accessible by controls on a monitor's bezel.
opt-in email:
An email that a user receives by requesting information that comes on a regular basis from a Web site. Newsletters and notification of changes to a Web site are examples of opt-in emails.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP):
The set of standards that let users of the Web exchange information found in Web pages. You can use a Web browser, such as Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator, to read documents formatted and delivered according to HTTP. The beginning of every Web address, "http://," tells the browser the address' document is HTTP-compatible.
pull-down menu:
A menu in a graphical user interface that is opened by placing the screen cursor over the title and clicking a mouse button. A list appears below the title, and the user can select options from that list.
vandal:
A malicious or nuisance program embedded within an HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) file, email attachment, or push technology data. Vandals often arrive in applets or ActiveX controls and, unlike viruses, do not self-replicate. They can, however, breach security restrictions within a computer to access passwords or cause loss of service for users within a network.
Blu-ray:
A high-capacity optical storage format similar to DVD. Blu-ray was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group of developers that includes Sony, Philips, Apple, Dell, Samsung, and Mitsubishi, as well as many others. Blu-ray takes its name from the blue-violet color of the laser used in a Blu-ray player or PC drive. CD and DVD players and drives use red lasers. A Blu-ray player’s laser beam is thinner and more tightly focuses than the laser of a DVD player, so manufacturers can store more bits of data much more closely together on a Blu-ray disc than they can on a DVD. Blu-ray is designed to use high-definition video and audio and may replace video DVDs. Blu-ray video players can play video at resolutions up to 1080p, a higher-quality resolution than DVD players can produce. PC users can also record large volumes of data to a recordable Blu-ray disc, assuming a user has a Blu-ray recordable drive. A single-sided, single-layer DVD can store about 4GB of data, but a single-layer Blu-ray disc can store 25GB of data. A double-layered Blu-ray disc can store 50GB of data. Blu-ray supports the MPEG-2, MPEG-4 AVC, and SMPTE VC-1 video formats. It also supports several audio formats, such as linear PCM, Dolby Digital, Dolby Digital Surround, Dolby Digital Plus, Dolby TrueHD, and DTS Digital Surround.
lasagne syndrome:
A program that has a tendency to stack its dialog boxes on top of one another, which may make it difficult to use the program properly.
smart battery:
A portable computer battery that keeps its system up-to-date about its power status. Also called an intelligent battery.
one-time pad:
A one-time pad is a cryptography term used to describe a process in which a message is encrypted using a randomly generated key. A unique key is randomly generated for each encrypted message. To decrypt the message, a recipient must have the same key. Theoretically, one-time pad encryption is impossible to break because each key is unrelated to other keys. However, working on a secure method to transmit the secret key to the receiver is a problem. Generally, one-time pad encrpytion takes place when both the sender and receiver begin at the same physical location and then separate. This technique was commonly used in WWII.
mininotebook:
A notebook less than four pounds. In many cases, mininotebooks come in a smaller package, meaning you have a smaller display. Power is an issue because there’s not as much room to add a large power source to a mininotebook. Smaller displays help conserve power as do slower processors and graphics controls. Mininotebooks are typically one-spindle devices capable of supporting only a hard drive. You can add an optical drive and/or floppy drive by clipping additional hardware to the bottom of the notebook or attaching the drives with cables (to USB [Universal Serial Bus] ports, for instance).
add-on lens:
A lens, such as a wide-angle lens, that you can add on to some digital cameras using built-in threads.
SmartMedia card (SMC):
A popular solid-state flash memory module used in MP3 players, digital cameras, and other gadgets. SmartMedia cards are very thin at 0.03 inches and are 1.46 inches wide by 1.77 inches long, with a notch on one corner. This format also is known as the SSFDC (Solid State Floppy Disk Card) because it can fit inside an adapter that slides into a PC’s diskette drive. Occasionally the term SM card is abbreviated as SMC (SmartMedia card).
offset:
A number indicating how far from a starting point an item is located, usually in bytes. For example, an offset might tell a processor how many bytes into a segment of memory it will find a specific piece of data. This is the computing equivalent of giving directions to a house by saying it is the second one from the corner; it gives a reference point and counts from that point to the desired item.
paginate:
To take a document, break it down into separate pages, and number the individual pages for printing.
dark fiber:
A reference to fiber optic cable that has been installed but is not yet in use. Companies sometimes install extra cable when setting up a fiber optic network in anticipation of future needs.
internesia:
Internesia is a slang term that describes the inability to remember where you found a key piece of information. It’s obviously a combination of the words Internet and amnesia.
impression:
A measurement a Web publisher takes to count the number of times it delivered an ad. The server's log files, or records detailing its activity, count the number of times the server sent a Web page with a specific ad on it to a user. Impressions do not consider whether the Web surfer actually saw the advertisement, just whether the surfer had the opportunity to see it.
electronic mail (email):
Text messages sent through a network to a specified individual or group. Received messages are stored in an Inbox and can be kept, deleted, replied to, or forwarded to another recipient, depending upon the email program. Besides a message, an email may have an attached file or graphic. Users can make sure a message was received by requesting a receipt. Although not all items can be sent electronically, email's big advantage over postal mail, nicknamed "snail mail," is speed. Email can be delivered within seconds or minutes across thousands of miles. May also be spelled e-mail or E-mail.
64-bit:
Computers or applications that work with data 64 bits at a time. A 64-bit computer might have a microprocessor capable of handling 64 bits of information at a time. More commonly, 64-bit also can describe the capability of the computer's bus to transport 64 bits of data at a time.
full-motion video (FMV):
Video playback in which individual frames are changed at a rate of at least 30 frames per second (fps). On a computer, video can play at various frame speeds depending upon system resources. At slower than 30fps, the image begins to appear choppy and not fluid to the human eye.
white box:
A device, such as a hard drive or sound card, that may have been intended for inclusion in a system package but for whatever reason has been repackaged to be sold separately. White box refers to the cardboard packaging the device comes in, although the packaging is often not a white box at all. The devices themselves are often referred to as white box devices.
skyscraper:
Huge, vertically-oriented banner ads along one side of a Web site.
interlaced display:
A term used to describe the method of scanning the odd numbered horizontal lines making up a picture on a CRT (cathode-ray tube) monitor before then scanning the even numbered lines. This method is sometimes used when a monitor’s resolution setting is above 800 x 600 pixels per inch in order to help reduce screen flicker.
skew:
A twist in an image that makes it look tilted to one side or another. Some image-editing programs have a skew feature to help users warp their images.
uplink:
An uplink is a connection from a ground-based transmitter to a satellite. The satellite can then relay the signal to a ground-based receiver over the downlink connection.
Air Cards:
An air card is a small card that connects to your laptop or mobile phone and gives you wireless Internet access. It does not replace the Wi-Fi capabilities of your mobile devices; rather, it augments the availability of wireless Internet. Air cards connect to mobile devices through PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association), ExpressCard, or PC Card Type II slots, though some models use a USB connection. After you install the accompanying software, your card should be ready to use.
If you're the type of person who likes to work outside of the home or office, an air card may be just the thing you need to beef up your productivity. For example, if you'd rather spend an hour returning emails in the park instead of a coffee shop, you can just pop your air card into your laptop and have at it.
font scaling:
A special ability of some printers whereby the printer only needs the outline of a particular font to create it in any required size.
million instructions per second (MIPS):
The approximate number of commands carried out in one second. Microprocessor power is sometimes measured in MIPS as a way of comparing chips. This practice is somewhat controversial, as some computers require a different number of instructions to complete the same task.
gradient fill:
A graphical special effect that produces a 3D color look. A gradient fill uses a gradual blend from a light background to a solid foreground or from one color to another.
smoke test:
A circuit board that survives after power is applied is said to have passed the smoke test. A short circuit or some other problem may result in a smoking circuit board.
phishing:
Phishing is the act of trying to trick users into giving up personal information by making them think they’re dealing with a legitimate business. A phisher sends unsolicited bulk emails to a large number of users. The email claims to be from a legitimate company, such as AOL or eBay, and claims the user’s account will be suspended unless they click on the provided URL and supply the requested information (often passwords, credit card numbers, and other personal information). The URL is on a server controlled by the phisher, but its appearance is similar to that of the real site.
Web log:
A noncommercial, often personal page that updates its content once a day or more and typically focuses on a specific subject, topic, or theme. Web logs usually feature updated content from the site creator, viewers, and/or other Web sites as well as moderated discussions about a variety of subjects.
ampere (A):
The unit for measuring electrical current; current measures the amount of electric charge flowing through a conductor at a given time. An ampere is the charge of one coulomb (a unit of electric charge equal to 6.25 X 10 to the 18th electrons) passing a point in one second.
title bar:
The bar located along the top of a window or dialog box that displays the application's name. In Windows 3.x, the Control menu box, minimize button, and maximize button are located on either side of the title bar. In Windows 95 and subsequent Windows OSes, the title bar includes the minimize button, the maximize button, and the close button.
sort:
To organize data. For example, the information in a database can be sorted alphabetically, numerically, by keywords, and in other ways.
cycle:
One occurrence of a repeating event.
display:
The image or text viewed on a monitor. More recently, display has become synonymous with the monitor itself, particularly when referring to flat panel displays.
nym:
Short for pseudonym, a word used to describe the name given to or created by a computer user for the purpose of keeping that user’s real identity hidden. Nyms are used to conceal identities when sending and receiving email and browsing the Internet. When you pick or are assigned a nym from a privacy company, all your incoming and outgoing email and Internet browsing requests go through the company’s servers and are processed under your nym. Anyone looking for your identity, then, will only be able to know you by that chosen or assigned name.
photosite:
The specific light-sensitive area on an image sensor used to capture a digital image. Most image sensors used in digital cameras are CCDs (charge-coupled devices) or CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductorsS). Other portions of an image sensor are used for other purposes.
Quicken Interchange Format (QIF):
The file format used by Intuit software to store financial data. A .QIF file can be imported into programs such as Intuit Quicken or Microsoft Money.
native language:
The most basic computer language used by the computer's processor to communicate with the rest of the system when no other language has been introduced to the computer. In most cases, the native language is the binary code inherent to the processor before the OS (operating system) has been introduced.
rewrite:
A do over; in documents, this means to reword or edit sentences, paragraphs, and pages. In data storage, rewrite means to save over a file with the same file.
Recover A Deleted File:
If a Search for a missing file proves fruitless, check to see if Windows isn holding the file in the Recycle Bin (double-click the Recycle Bin Desktop icon). Most files you manually delete remain in the Recycle Bin, taking up hard drive space until you empty the bin (click File and Empty Recycle Bin if you wish to empty it). By default, the Recycle Bin uses 10% of your hard drive's capacity. (Change this by right-clicking Recycle Bin, clicking Properties, and adjusting the Maximum Size Of Recycle Bin slider.) When the capacity is full, Windows drops off older files as new ones are added. If you have a large-capacity hard drive, your files can remain in the bin for a long time. If an accidentally deleted file is in the Recycle Bin, highlight it, click File, and click Restore to retrieve it.
smartphone:
Advanced cellular phones that can also receive text and data via the Internet.
System Requirements:
When looking at specifications for new software, be aware that manufacturers will often list minimum system requirements as well as recommended ones. Though the software may work with the minimum requirements, it's probably a good idea to make sure that your system has the recommended ones because the programs you install will generally run a lot smoother and crash less if your system doesn't have to use every bit of its resources just to load them.
catalog:
A list of information about files or storage space. File details might include name, length, type, and location. In a database, catalog refers to the data dictionary.
RAM cache:
A cache made of high-speed SRAM (static RAM) linked directly to the CPU. RAM caches are used for keeping a copy of the most recently and most frequently accessed data in memory so the information is more quickly accessible. Also called a memory cache or processor cache.
wireless bridge:
An antenna or other device used to connect one network to another network over distances without cables or wires. A wireless bridge, for instance, could connect networks in multiple buildings on a college or company campus. In other circumstances, a wireless bridge could connect an office network in one part of the city to an office network in another part of the city. In order for a wireless bridge to work, both nodes must have a clear line of sight path to one another. Wireless bridges can be omnidirectional, meaning they radiate a signal in all directions, or directional. Directional wireless bridges must be pointed directly at one another.
video standards:
The various definitions of a PC's ability to display colors and resolution. A PC supports a certain video standard only if both the monitor and the video adapter support the standard. The numbers specified for a standard often are minimums; many manufacturers claiming to meet that standard actually exceed the minimum numbers.
absolute pointing device:
A peripheral that is limited by the boundaries of an on-screen application window as it manipulates the movement of a cursor.
alphanumeric sort:
A method of ordering data that accounts for alphabetic order, punctuation, and numerals. It often organizes data in the following order: punctuation marks, numbers, capital alphabetic characters, lowercase alphabetic characters, and any remaining characters.
backward compatible:
Computer hardware or software that works with older versions or standards. Backward compatibility is popular because it lets users upgrade systems and software gradually, rather than starting over from scratch each time a new version or standard is released.
about:
In Windows-based applications, an option that, when activated, identifies the registered user of the program, the version number, and the program's creator. The About command usually is located in the Help menu.
glass plate:
A plate found on a scanner or copier that the document is placed on to be scanned or copied. The glass allows light to illuminate the print on the document so that it can be processed.
overwrite:
To record information on top of previously recorded information, replacing the old with the new.
blade server:
A type of rack-mounted server that can accept additional motherboards, called server blades, each of which has its own CPU, RAM, and associated circuitry. The blades share a common power supply, operating system, and management mechanism. The blade-style server's modular approach to adding processing power reduces the overall cost, heat output, size, and management difficulty of a group of servers, especially compared to a traditional server farm of similar power.
off-peak:
Used to describe times when network activity is at a minimum. Off-peak hours typically include evenings and weekends. Mobile phone companies often provide a greater amount of free off-peak minutes than peak minutes and may charge less for additional off-peak minutes compared to peak minutes. Off-peak can also describe the hours at which Internet traffic is at a minimum.
graphical user interface (GUI):
GUI is a program interface that incorporates the computer’s graphic capabilities into the application, which makes it easier to use. A good example of a GUI is any Windows operating system. The user interacts with Windows through icons, windows, menus, and pointers as opposed to typing in DOS commands.
land:
A land is the smooth part of the underside of a CD-ROM, as opposed to a pit, which is an indentation on the underside of a CD-ROM. When the laser from a CD drive passes over a land, more light is reflected back to the photo cell than when the laser passes over a pit. This is how a CD drive distinguishes between pits and lands. The pits and lands equal the ones and zeros that make up the binary language of computing.
case window:
A clear window in a computer's tower case, usually in the case's removable side panel. Case windows are most often found in high performance desktop systems and are intended to show off the components inside. Case windows are typically made of scratch-resistant acrylic.
onboard:
Located on a circuit board; sometimes meaning specifically on the motherboard. For example, memory chips on the motherboard are referred to as onboard memory.
microspacing:
The insertion of tiny blank spaces between words, performed by a word processing application when justifying text.
bump mapping:
A technique used to create more realistic looking objects in three-dimensional (3-D) applications by giving them a detailed texture. Tree bark, for example, would be very detailed to give the tree a rough appearance.
Lossy vs. Lossless Audio:
Audio compression software uses two types of compression, lossless and lossy, to create smaller digital music files. Lossless compression retains the quality of the original audio recording. All of the 1s and 0s in the audio track are accounted for, and all of them are re-created perfectly when the compressed music is decoded. That means there is absolutely no quality loss compared to the original audio file, but lossless compression is extremely inefficient. It generally crunches files down to half their original size, meaning that with lossless compression, a 74-minute CD will consume about 325MB of space on your hard drive. Lossy compression gives up some quality to achieve much smaller file sizes than lossless compression. Lossy formats use different algorithms to strip some of the frequencies and other data out of a song that don't necessarily make any difference to our ears. A track compressed using a lossy algorithm may not have the dynamic range of the original track and may not sound quite as crisp, but it's possible to create perfectly acceptable music using a bit rate as low as 128Kbps for most types of audio. Audio that doesn't have a lot of dynamic range, such as audio books, can be recorded at bit rates as low as 64Kbps and remain virtually indistinguishable from the original audio CD. Using lossless compression, you could fit more than two hours worth of perfect audio on a single CD. Not bad, but using a bit rate of 128Kbps, you can squeeze more than 10 hours' worth of music on a CD or 20 hours' worth of audio books recorded at 64Kbps.
wireframe:
A computer model of a 3-D object, using wires to define the outside edges of the object. The wireframe provides the skeleton of objects rendered in 3-D for programs such as games.
interstitial:
A separate browser window that “pops up” when a user enters a certain Web site. Interstitials are usually advertisements, and they often include animated content or other graphics. The user can then click these ads or graphics to link to Web pages with more information. Some interstitials go away after a few seconds, but most must be closed by clicking the close buttons in the upper-left corner of the window. Also called pop-up ads.
airbrush:
A tool included in many photo-editing programs that simulates a spray paint pattern on a photo. Typically the user can define the color and size of the spray. Airbrushing is also a term often used by people who make a hobby of modifying their PCs. These users pay artists to airbrush complex (and expensive) artwork onto the side of their PC cases.
Open Source Initiative (OSI):
The organization responsible for writing the official definition of open source. It exists to promote the use of open-source software and to convince businesses to open-source their projects. While the OSI is actively involved in open-source advocacy, it is not opposed to proprietary software.
time quantum:
An amount of time in which a process runs without interruption. Also known as a time slice.
on-demand:
Usually used in reference to video services or video downloads. On-demand refers to a user’s ability to access, download, or view content at the time of his choosing, rather than at a predetermined time, as with a television show. Many cable services are now offering on-demand video services, and some online media portals, such as iTunes, are now offering video downloads and streaming video of television programs. Some hardware products, such as Tivo and other DVRs (digital video recorders) are also providing a sort of on-demand service in that they record TV shows and movies for the user so she can watch them at her convenience. Other devices, such as the Slingbox, let users view their local television programming from anywhere in the world, so long as they have access to the Internet.
content provider:
An individual or company that creates or delivers content, usually through the Internet, although it can also refer to those who provide content for cell phone users. "Content" may be in the form of text, audio, video, or images.
motherboard:
The printed circuit board that is the foundation of a computer. This board contains a computer's CPU (central processing unit), RAM (random-access memory) chips, and expansion slots. The motherboard is where all of the computer's components meet. Also called system board or mainboard.
form factor:
The size of a device, in physical terms rather than capacity. It can be used to describe media sizes (such as 3.5-inch and 5.25-inch diskette drives), but is more often used to describe the size and layout of devices' cases. A form factor for a computer case or motherboard describes its dimensions as well as its layout, such as the location of hard drives, CD-ROM and diskette drives, slots, and ports. Form factors for computer cases and motherboards can have descriptive names, such as the Baby AT form factor for motherboards.
internal drive:
A drive that sits within the computer’s case.
hand recognition:
A biometric technique that compares the size, shape, and features of the human hand for purposes of verification. Although the human hand is not unique enough to be used for identification on its own, it can be used to verify a person’s identity in concert with a PIN number, fingerprint, or some other means of identification. When users place a hand on a hand geometry device, a computer captures an image of the hand and compares overall size, width, and length and curvature of the fingers to previously captured information.
global unique identifier (GUID):
Certain versions of Microsoft’s Office affix a GUID to all documents it creates. The GUID can be used to trace a document back to a specific computer (and therefore, a specific user). A number of privacy concerns involving the GUID have been raised by individuals who fear GUIDs could be used to track down individuals who want to speak anonymously.
illegal character:
A character, such as a period, that isn't valid or can't be used in certain commands because the character is used for some other reason within the operating system.
in-circuit emulator (ICE):
An ICE (in-circuit emulator) is a computer chip used in the design of embedded systems. An ICE emulates the embedded processor used to run the system and allows developers to design and debug software.
buffer:
A temporary storage area in a computer's memory, usually RAM, that holds recent changes to files and other information to be written later to the hard drive. Because hard drives are relatively slow compared to RAM, buffers speed up performance. However, buffers generally are wiped clean by power outages; saving a file moves the information to the hard drive. Print buffers allow printing in the background while the user moves to another application or document. Buffers also are used by some transmission protocols. Incoming data might be stored in a buffer until they are verified.
universal remote:
Gives you complete control over all electronic devices in your home. This includes not just stereo equipment and televisions, but lights, kitchen appliances, and nearly anything else in the home that uses electricity.
through the lens (TTL):
In digital photography, this refers to a technology that operates through the camera's lens. For instance, TTL AE (Auto Exposure) is generally more accurate than other AE methods because it calculates the exposure as seen by the lens.
External Drive:
If your external storage device shows up in My Computer, but you can't access or write to the drive, the drive may be incorrectly formatted for Windows or have a corrupt partition. Windows 2000 and XP feature a utility called Disk Management that analyzes your external drive and assigns it an Online, Healthy, or Unreadable status. Open the utility by right-clicking the My Computer icon and selecting Manage. Under the Storage heading, double-click Disk Management to view your external storage drive's status. If it has an Unreadable status, you need to format the drive to remove the corrupt partition or incompatible Windows file format. Before you do, attempt to transfer the drive's data onto another computer because formatting completely erases the files on the drive. To format, simply right-click the external hard drive and click Format.
teergrube:
A slow-moving mail server designed to trap and punish address harvesters. A spammer's mailer gets stuck when she tries to send spam to email addresses gained from a teergrube host.
scanner:
A peripheral device that captures photos, graphics, or text, and converts that data into a digital format for editing on and output from a computer. Some scanners, coupled with an OCR (optical character recognition) program, can scan blocks of text into a word processor for editing, while others are designed specifically for photos, slides, or film. Scanners come in many shapes and sizes. Some of the most popular types of scanners include flatbed, sheetfed, handheld, and film.
spider:
A program that "crawls" across the World Wide Web, automatically collecting Web pages. Most spiders will follow every link on a page, cataloging each page, until it comes to a dead end. Then it will start over on a new page. Spiders are used primarily by Web search engines to gather data for the search engine's database. Search engines don't actually search the entire Internet when a user enters a search term. Instead, they look at the database of Web pages collected by their spider. Spiders are also known as crawlers and bots.
jacket:
In terms of fiber optics, the jacket is the outermost layer of a fiber optic cable made of hard plastic. Its purpose is to protect the cable from moisture, scratches, and other elements. The jacket is one of several protective layers that make up an optical cable.
UPS:
If you don't have one already, consider investing in a UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply). A UPS protects your computer by providing battery power after a power outage or electrical surge. This enables you to save your work and shut down your system safely. Suitable for home use, a standby UPS uses utility power under normal circumstances, but when that power is interrupted, it will use a backup battery. A continuous UPS will run off constant battery power. Depending on how many devices you have connected to the UPS, battery power can last approximately 15 minutes or longer. There are UPS's built to sustain power for longer amounts of time.
kilobit:
Equal to exactly 1,024 bits. Used to measure data storage or transmission in terms of bits, as in kilobits per second (Kbps).
hotspot:
Hotspots are locations that provide wireless Internet service via a wireless access point. Hotspots are usually in populated public areas, such as a town square or downtown area, as well as at hotels and airports. In some instances, users may have to pay for access whereas other hotspots provide free access.
podcast:
Podcasts are downloadable episodes of programs that are similar to radio broadcasts. These files are saved in a compressed audio format, such as MP3. Users can download individual episodes of favorite programs, or they can subscribe to podcasts. Typically, podcasts are delivered to subscribers through RSS (Really Simple Syndication) feeds. Podcasting is a method of publishing files to the Internet, allowing users to subscribe to a feed and receive new files automatically by subscription.
draft mode:
A function on many printers that allows the characters to be formed with as few dots or as little ink or toner as possible. Despite its substandard quality, draft mode is used for rough drafts because it is quicker and more economical than the normal printing mode.
minimize:
Reducing a window to a small button or icon, while keeping the application running inside it open. In the newest Windows operating systems, the minimize button is in the upper right of the application and has a short horizontal line at the bottom. When you minimize an application, it appears in the Taskbar as a button that, if clicked, maximizes the application.
heap:
A term used by programmers to describe the amount of memory a program needs in order for it to work. Heap memory has been set aside for a program to request as needed to operate. A set amount of heap memory is hard to determine before a program is started because the amount changes as a program runs.
clock:
One of two kinds of clocks in most computers. The first is a real-time clock, which keeps track of time just like a wall clock or wristwatch and often includes the date. This clock usually is battery-operated, so it continues working when the computer is turned off. The second kind is the system clock, which actually is a circuit that generates a series of pulses that pace the electronic system within the computer, synchronizing the circuits and operations.
log:
A detailed list of a system's or application's activities. A log can be useful for keeping track of computer use and emergency recovery of data.
hard page break:
The act of manually creating a page break in a document. Word processors typically mark page breaks automatically, but you have the option of creating a page break at any point in a document. The text following the hard page break will appear on the next page.
mousing surface:
Any surface on which a mouse is used. Normally, this would be a mouse pad. However, because optical mice function on most surfaces, common mousing surfaces today also include desktops, stacks of paper, and even pant legs.
digital video:
Full-motion video represented by the 0’s and 1’s of the binary system. Digital video is a bandwidth-intensive function, meaning you need a capable multimedia PC to handle its demands.
Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a wireless standard that takes advantage of short ranges and slow data transfer speeds. You'll find Bluetooth-capable PDAs, game controllers, wireless headphones, printers, and digital cameras.
Bluetooth is extremely secure due to its multiple layers of data encryption. Typically, Bluetooth-compatible devices will require a PIN and Bluetooth address to identify other Bluetooth devices. A low-powered Bluetooth device can transmit up to 30 feet and a high-powered device up to 300 feet.
flash drive:
USB (Universal Serial Bus) flash drives are high-speed, high-capacity memory devices designed for long-term data storage and easy transport among PCs. The host PC treats the device just like a drive, so you can transfer files of all types to and from the device. Because the device emulates a drive, it supports any type of file, including audio files (such as MP3s) and graphics files (such as JPEGs [Joint Photographic Experts Group] and BMPs [bit map]). In addition, USB flash drives can easily support applications, CAD (computer-aided design) drawings, and a wealth of personal information you’d rather not leave on any particular PC. Most USB flash drives are smaller than a pack of gum and can easily fit onto a key ring. A flash drive is also called a thumb drive or travel drive.
integrate:
As a verb, integrate refers to the action of two or more hardware or software components working together as a system. As an adjective, it means something is a single, conglomerated unit.
Dual-Core Processors:
A dual-core processor has two execution cores on a single chip. Each core independently accesses the frontside (system) bus, which connects the CPU to the system's RAM.
A dual-core processor is ideal for multitasking—for instance, watching streaming video while listening to MP3s with other applications open, as well—or playing graphics-intensive games.
adapter card:
A printed circuit board connected to the motherboard at an expansion slot. An adapter card enables a computer to communicate with a peripheral. For example, a joystick requires an adapter card to communicate with the computer system. Also called controller card.
agent :
An automated program, generally in the context of the Internet. These programs either gather information or perform a task for you without your intervention. An example would be services that check to see if specified Web pages have been updated. Agents include "bots," which can, for example, be set to gather news items of interest.
Portable Power:
For power-hungry laptops and portable DVD players, an external rechargeable battery is the only type of portable power that stores enough energy to provide the extra hours of battery life you need on a long plane ride. The additional usage time you'll receive from an external rechargeable battery will differ depending on the watts stored in the battery and the power consumption of your device. Generally, you can expect most laptops to run another two to three hours off an external battery that stores around 60W, and a battery with a capacity of around 120W should power your notebook computer for another five to six hours. External batteries typically connect to the DC input jack of your portable device (the same hookup you use for the AC power adapter) through an included cord that may feature adaptable connectors. We should note that DC input jacks vary in size, and you'll want to make certain the external power source includes connector tips that fit your portable device's DC input jack. Contact the external battery's manufacturer or visit its Web site to ensure a connector tip is provided for your device.
loader:
A program utility that moves a program from storage into memory, where it can begin operation.
talk time:
When buying a cell phone, you’ll want to pay attention to its talk time. Talk time is the length of time you can transmit data (via voice phone conversations or other data transmissions) without recharging the battery. Talk time is usually expressed in minutes or hours. Conversely, standby time, or the amount of time the phone can operate without transmitting data, is often expressed in hours or days. Because talking on the phone will drain a battery faster than leaving it idle, talk time is often considerably less than standby time.
Basic Input/Output System (BIOS):
(Pronounced bye-ose) A special piece of software built into most computers. BIOS routines control the startup process of the machines and other basic functions such as the keyboard, display, and disk drives. On older computers, the BIOS is stored in read-only memory, which is not erased when the power to the computer is shut off. Newer computers store BIOS on flash ROM, which can be erased and rewritten if the user needs to update the BIOS program.
kill:
To delete or remove data or a file.
oscillation:
To swing back and forth, such as the waving arm of a metronome. The electrical meaning is a complete cycle of alteration.
grounding:
The act of touching a metal surface to discharge static electricity. It's always wise to ground oneself before working inside a PC because the static electricity can damage electronic circuits inside the PC's case.
Printer Problems:
If your printer won't operate, start by checking the simplest things. Start by verifying that the power cable is plugged into the printer and a wall outlet, power strip, or surge protector. Next, make sure the printer's power button is turned on and that the printer's data cable is connected to both the printer and your PC.
Next, make sure there isn't a sheet of paper stuck in the printer. If there was a paper jam earlier, your printer may not even attempt to print any more documents until you remove the paper that's stuck.
dots per inch (dpi):
A measure of printer resolution that indicates how many ink dots the printer can place in one square inch. The larger the pi, the sharper the printed image. A text printer should have at least 600dpi; a graphics printer should have at least 1200 x 600 or 1200 x 1200 dpi.
archive file:
A data-file copy stored somewhere other than the location of the file from which the copy was made. An archive copy helps ensure against permanent data loss, which may occur in cases of system failure or natural catastrophe. Backing up files to a diskette or a tape drive is one method of archiving data. Extremely valuable archives often are stored in fireproof vaults, underground bunkers, or at sites hundreds of miles from the original data source.
uniformity:
A measure of the brightness consistency on a computer screen. A screen with areas of darkness has poor uniformity. You can easily spot a monitor with poor uniformity when looking at a plain white background on its screen.
A Misbehaving Router:
If you can access the Internet when you connect directly to your broadband modem, but not when you put a router between the modem and your PC, one solution is to reset your network devices. This gives them the chance to reassign IP (Internet Protocol) addresses and connect to each other without conflicts. To completely reset your network devices, power off your PC and then unplug your broadband modem and router. Leave the units unplugged for a few minutes. Consult your device manuals to determine whether you need to perform any additional tasks to reset the devices (some units have Reset buttons, for example). Finally, plug in and power on your devices, starting with the broadband modem, then your router, and then your PC.
warez:
Pronounced “wares,” a term for copyrighted software made available illegally for downloading from the Internet. Also, any method used by software pirates to acquire applications without paying for them.
meta tag:
An HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) code used to index pages. The tag includes such things as keywords and page descriptions for a Web site.
newbie:
Describes any new user of computer or Internet technology.
discovery:
The exploration of a network to determine topologies, IP (Internet Protocol) addresses, database information, etc.
shareware:
Copyrighted software distributed on a free-will donation basis either via the Internet or by being passed along by satisfied customers.
soft reset:
Most PDAs have a Reset button. If your PDA freezes, or if your software installation requires it, you may need to perform a soft reset by pressing the Reset button.
snail mail:
Slang for traditional paper mail sent by a postal service, taken from its relative slowness to arrive compared to electronic mail.
repeater:
An instrument that increases a signal's strength so it can be transmitted and received over a greater distance without a loss in quality.
rich text:
Advanced technology used for page layout formatting of text. Rich text can include fonts, borders, underlining, italicizing, and other formatting. Rich text requires more storage space than plain text.
Web based email:
Email that a person can access from any computer that has Internet access and a Web browser. Examples of these accounts are Hotmail or Yahoo mail.
underexposed:
Refers to a digital image that is too dark or wasn't exposed to enough light.
drive bay:
The system unit space reserved for the installation of any type of drive. These slots are usually located on the front panel of a computer. Empty drive bays may be protected by a plastic cover. To install many types of add-on components, an empty drive bay is required.
polyphonic ringtone:
Different cell phones support different types of ringtones. A polyphonic ringtone uses your phone's ability to emulate instrument sounds and play multiple tones at once. Phones that are polyphonic-capable can play up to 40 notes at once, but are unable to play lyrics. In comparison to monophonic ringtones that can only play a tone-based version of a song, polyphonic ringtones sound more like the original song. Conversely, because polyphonic ringtones can't include lyrics, they're apt to sound less like the original song than a full music ringtone that includes lyrics and sounds nearly identical to the full version of an original song.
multicore chip:
Multiple cores (the central brain of the chip) contained on one chip. Having dual or multiple cores allows a chip to divide computing tasks efficiently, which allows more computing work to be finished in a shorter amount of time than a single-core chip would have used to do the same work.
palette:
The set of available colors in a given computer graphics program or computer system. Palette also can refer to the collection of tools in paint programs used for creating and altering images.
posting:
To transmit a message or article for publication on an Internet newsgroup or bulletin board.
portability:
The ease with which software can be moved from one computer or operating system to another. Portability can be defined as either high or low. High portability implies the software is easily moved to other systems; low portability means it can be moved with great effort, similar to the effort put into writing the original program.
popularity ranking:
A technique used by some search engines, with the most popular Web site listed first. The number of sites that link to the ranked site determines popularity.
mounting kit:
A group of hardware components used to secure monitors, network hubs, and other hardware items to walls or desks.
gamma correction:
Correcting the brightness, contrast, or color of computer graphics on a printer, monitor, or scanner so graphics are uniform on a monitor or hard copy.
gov:
This top-level domain name is reserved for Web sites affiliated with the U.S. government. It is used in URLs (uniform resource locators) to identify a site as a government Web site. For example, www.whitehouse.gov or www.firstgov.gov.
disk capacity:
The number of bytes, or characters, a disk can hold; the maximum storage volume of a disk. Capacities are usually stated in kilobytes (KB or K), megabytes (MB), or gigabytes (GB).
key length:
In terms of data encryption or decryption, key length is a measurement of how secure the encryption key is. In general, the longer the key length, the more secure the encryption is.
Cold start:
>computer science To start running a computer program from the very beginning, without being able to continue the processing that was occurring previously when the system was interrupted.
Bootstrap:
In computers, to bootstrap or "to boot is to load a program into a computer using a much smaller initial program to load in the desired program which is usually an operating system.
core dump:
A core dump is the recorded state of the working memory of a computer program at a specific time, generally when the program has terminated abnormally, crashed.
Input:
Input is the term denoting either an entrance or changes which are inserted into a system and which activate/modify a process. It is an abstract concept, used in the modeling, system (s) design and system(s) exploitation. It is usually connected with other terms, e.g., input field, input variable, input parameter, input value, input signal, input device and input file.
I/O:
Input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system such as a computer, and the outside world – possibly a human, or another information processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an input or output operation. I/O devices are used by a person or other system to communicate with a computer. For instance, keyboards and mice are considered input devices of a computer, while monitors and printers are considered output devices of a computer. Devices for communication between computers, such as modems and network cards, typically serve for both input and output. Note that the designation of a device as either input or output depends on the perspective. Mice and keyboards take as input physical movement that the human user outputs and convert it into signals that a computer can understand. The output from these devices is input for the computer. Similarly, printers and monitors take as input signals that a computer outputs. They then convert these signals into representations that human users can see or read. For a human user the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving input.
Debugging:
Debugging is a methodical process of finding and reducing the number of bugs, or defects, in a computer program or a piece of electronic hardware thus making it behave as expected. Debugging tends to be harder when various subsystems are tightly coupled, as changes in one may cause bugs to emerge in another.
Unrecognized Keyboard:
If Windows displays an error message that a keyboard isn't present or characters you type aren't displaying on-screen, check the connection to the computer. Shut your system down and then look at its back to make sure the connector is securely plugged into the proper PS/2 or USB port. PS/2 keyboard ports are typically colored purple, and the connector will only fit one way. Check also that the connector's pins aren't bent or broken. It's possible to gently bend a pin back in place, but if it's broken, replacing the keyboard is your only option./P>
If the pins are fine but you suspect the board isn't receiving power, plug another keyboard into the computer. If it works, your keyboard's circuitry may be damaged, and you'll likely need a replacement. If the substitute also fails, the PS/2 or USB port or a motherboard controller may be bad, and it's possible you'll have to replace the motherboard. Finally, if the keyboard is plugged into a USB hub, the hub may not be capable of supplying sufficient power to the keyboard. Try connecting the keyboard directly to a dedicated USB port.
Memory Error Messages:
Memory-related error messages that appear when your computer first begins booting usually point to a bad memory module. The computer performs basic tests on all hardware when it's first switched on. If the information it writes to memory is not the same as the information it reads from memory, the computer stops booting and displays an error message.
In most cases you'll need to replace the bad module. If you have recently installed new memory, however, the problem could be a compatibility issue. Try removing the new memory and see if it solves the problem.
If you have multiple memory modules, try booting your PC with just one module installed at a time. This will help you isolate the bad memory module.
emoticons:
Also known as smileys and short for emotion icons, these punctuation combinations form small pictures, often best viewed sideways. Emoticons are most often seen in electronic mail (email) and Internet messages.
queue (Pronounced cue.):
Operations such as printing that are being held, usually in the order received, before the computer executes them. Also refers to lining up these operations. When referring to programming, it means to remove data elements in the order they were entered.
Tame An Unruly Mouse In WinXP:
If you installed a new mouse, but Windows won't recognize it, a driver conflict may be the problem. If you didn't uninstall the previous mouse, it may be causing a hardware or device driver conflict. Windows Device Manager can identify hardware conflicts and device driver problems, as well as remove problem devices from your computer. You can either connect the previous mouse or use your keyboard to open and view the Device Manager. Press the Windows key to bring up the Start menu. Use the arrow keys to highlight Settings and Control Panel and then press ENTER. Select the System icon, press ENTER, and use the arrow keys to select the Hardware tab. Press TAB until you select the Device Manager button and press ENTER. Press TAB and press the Down arrow key until the Mouse icon is highlighted. Use the Right arrow key to display the installed mouse. An exclamation point indicates that a mouse has a driver conflict.
middleware:
Software that allows two otherwise incompatible programs to communicate with each other. The middleware converts data from one program to the other, and vice versa. Middleware is most often used to connect databases.
digital divide:
A term used to describe the gap that exists between people who have the capability, access, and knowledge to use modern technology and those who do not.
privilege level:
An authorized access level that each network user is assigned, either as a user, an administrator, or as a guest. This determines what information he or she can and cannot have access to.
Satellite Speakers:
Speakers used in a surround-sound configuration. The satellite speakers are used as the front speakers, usually placed to the left and right of the sound system, facing out.
groupware:
A type of software designed to let users on a network use the same software and work on the same projects at the same time. A popular groupware product is Lotus Notes, which is software that, among other applications, lets users work on the same documents and exchange email.
end user:
The person who uses hardware or software programmed or designed by another person.
merge:
To put two sets of data together while keeping the integrity of each intact.
canned software:
Off-the-shelf software available in stores, as opposed to custom software created for a specific company or individual.
toner cartridge:
A removable container that holds toner for a laser printer and which can be thrown away when empty. Some toner cartridges contain only the toner, while others include the photosensitive drum, making it less likely that someone will touch the drum and damage or mark up its surface.
back-hack:
Back-hack refers to the art of tracking a hacker who has broken into your system.
pong:
The result of a successful ping, or test of a network connection’s performance. If the site or device you ping is operating properly it sends a return transmission called a pong.
traffic:
How much activity is taking place on a communications system. Too many users on a network will lead to more traffic than the system was designed to carry, or a kind of traffic jam. Overloaded networks will sometimes malfunction, so network administrators work to control traffic.
point size:
A measurement used to describe the height of a printed character. A single point is 1/72 of an inch.
tab stop:
A place on a text line where the cursor goes when the TAB key is pressed. In word processing documents, tab stops usually are placed at regular intervals across the line but can be set wherever the user wants them.
machine learning:
The ability of a machine to recognize patterns and improve future performance based on this experience.
native file format:
The way an application fundamentally arranges and presents data. One example of a native file format is the way Microsoft Word inherently arranges and presents text in a file with a .DOC extension. The native file format may be associated with one program, or it may be universally accepted.
key generation:
Refers to the actual act of creating a key, which is a string of bits used to encrypt or decrypt data or information for security purposes.
microprocessor:
The integrated circuit, known as the CPU (central processing unit), that controls the computer. Microprocessors cram more than 1 million transistors into 1 square inch of space. Microprocessors are responsible for interpreting instructions gathered from input devices and transmitting the results to output devices. Though there are many types of microprocessors, the two main families used in PCs are made by Intel and AMD.
bot:
An abbreviation for robot. Bot usually refers to software that executes some function automatically. Search engines typically use bots to seek out Web sites and record information about the sites for future search purposes.
output:
Information that comes out of a computer after processing. Output can be displayed on a screen, sent to another computer, or stored on a variety of storage media.
line driver:
A device that boosts the strength of a signal before sending it down a line. A line driver increases the transmission distance, which helps to ensure the signal reaches its destination.
recover:
To stabilize a PC after an error has occurred. If used in conjunction with a program, to recover means the program stabilizes itself and returns to use without user intervention. Often "recover" is used to describe getting files back after a hard drive error. In this case, a recovery program searches for whatever information remains in storage. Whatever is found is "recovered."
photosensor:
A highly sensitive device that converts light into an electrical signal. Solar-powered devices use photosensors.
personal computer:
A computer designed for use by a single user, with everything a user could need for basic computing, including the ability to process and store information. IBM introduced its first single-user computer as the IBM PC in 1981, and in the last 15 years, the term has come to represent any computer based on the IBM standard. The other standard in the personal computer market is the Apple Macintosh. Software and peripherals specify whether they work on IBM-compatible PCs or Apple Macintosh platforms. In addition to standard abilities such as word processing, PCs have brought a wide variety of new possibilities to home users. Today a PC can be used to play high-tech video games, access huge amounts of information, and contact people around the world. The growth of the Internet and the World Wide Web has opened up a vast new world of opportunities for PC users.
mail merge:
The ability of some word processing applications to automatically insert a list of addresses and other information into form letters. The user sets up a document laced with special codes indicating where addresses and names will be inserted. This document is then combined with a list of names and addresses. The results can be printed or stored as separate files. Mail merge saves the user the hassle of repeatedly typing the same text. Also called print merge.
peripheral:
Any device connected to the computer that performs a specific function. Printers, keyboards, diskette and tape drives, and monitors are among the most common types of peripheral devices.
bit bucket:
A term used in jest by users to describe the fictional place where information or data lost in transmission on the Internet winds up.
peer:
A computer that exists on the same level as another with similar access privileges on a network.
media:
The plural term for computer storage material such as diskettes, hard disks, and tapes.
neologism:
A word, term, or expression recently invented or given a new meaning. One example is wallpaper, which, before computers became widespread, meant the material you cover a room’s walls with. The rate of neologisms has increased with the introduction of new technology, most notably, the Internet, which has spawned such terms as intranet, extranet, emoticon, and netiquette.
fisheye lens:
A camera lens that can be attached to some cameras to produce a very specific effect. A fisheye lens is a very wide angle lens that takes straight lines of an image and displays them as curves. Typically, a fisheye lens focuses more intensely on the center of an image, while at the same time focusing less on the outer edges of the image.
chaffing:
A method of keeping email messages safe from encryptions while they transmit. Chaffing adds false packages to a message when it is sent and removes those packages when it is received, making it impossible for anyone but the intended recipient to understand the message.
photo retouching:
To improve a scanned photo image using the tools available in a photo manipulation program. Improvements can include everything from more refined colors to improved clarity.
granularity:
A measurement or degree of an image's on-screen clarity. The smaller the dots that make up an image and the more dots used, the clearer the image. Bigger dots make the image appear grainy. Granularity also refers to the degree of difficulty in searching a database and manipulating data. If a search's features are not specific enough, a database might be considered quite granular.
perspective correction:
A type of texture mapping that accounts for depth while rendering images. By doing this, objects that are supposed to be closer are larger, and those that are farther away appear smaller.
wave:
The pattern of a signal, such as that generated by sound and light, that changes at regular intervals.
time out:
A communication or program error that results when a response is not given in a specified length of time. For example, you can be disconnected (sometimes called "kicked off") from an online service if you do nothing for a certain period of time. Some programs let you choose the length of time after which the program times out, so if you walk away and accidentally leave the program open, it won't keep running indefinitely.
resource:
An item, either hardware or software, that is available for a computer to access during an operation. A resource can be accessed by a single computer or through a network and includes items such as a system's hard drive or a shared printer.
hardwired:
A function built into a system's hardware, rather than software, to perform a task. The capability to perform a task can be built in through an extra microchip, instead of programming the task into software. For example, some computers might include MPEG (Motion Picture Experts Group) video as hardware instead of relying on software to do the job. However, the term occasionally is used when referring to software. It might also be said that a feature is hardwired into software if that feature cannot be manipulated or changed by the user.
insert:
To place in between. In computing, it means to place something between data, information, or any other pieces of a document. For example, you can insert words anywhere in a word processing document.
microchip art:
A "signature," such as a nonfunctioning symbol or picture, that microchip designers often add to their chips to add a personal touch to their handiwork.
transfer:
Transmitting data from point A to point B, whether the points are on a communications link or between components on a computer system.
pessimistic locking:
This database feature locks an object before the object is updated. That way, the user will be sure no one else accesses the object during the update and ensures that the update will be made.
video black:
A blank section of videotape. Video black is often used to separate different portions of a program on the tape and at the very beginning and end of a tape.
mouse droppings:
Pixels that are improperly displayed after the mouse pointer moves across a PC screen. This happens frequently if a mouse driver doesn’t work with the current graphics mode.
Roll Back A Device Driver In WinXP:
One of WinXP's nifty system-security features is the Roll Back Driver utility, which lets you uninstall problematic drivers for hardware and revert to the previous driver with a few mouse clicks. If you update the driver for a device and it begins causing problems, use this utility (you must be logged in at the Administrator level). Right-click the My Computer icon on your Desktop and select Properties. Select the Hardware tab and under the General tab, click the Device Manager button. Select the device with the problematic driver. Click the Driver tab and click Roll Back Driver.
hotkey:
A key or combination of keys, such as CTRL and an alphanumeric character, that activate a pop-up program or cause some other predetermined action to occur. For instance, SHIFT and F7 are hotkeys used to print in DOS versions of WordPerfect.
radio frequency (RF):
The range of frequencies from 3KHz to 300GHz on the electromagnetic spectrum between light and sound. These frequencies are used by devices such as AM and FM radios and baby monitors, or for communications between satellites.
ALT key:
The ALT (Alternate) key on a computer is used in conjunction with other keys to give a key an additional function other than the one indicated by its label. The ALT key is similar to the CTRL (Control) key. For instance, employing the ALT-F key combination in most Windows applications will open the File menu. When using the ALT key, it is best to press the ALT key and, before releasing it, press the other key desired.
polymorphic virus:
These kinds of viruses try to avoid detection by antivirus programs by changing their code. The structure or code of the virus will appear to be different on different systems, which may confuse the antivirus software.
mouse ahead:
An action that happens when you begin clicking the mouse before the software is prepared to accept new input. This happens most often with programs you’re so familiar with that you know when and where you need to click before the program is done loading.
host:
A computer that shares information with other computers, or the act of sharing information with or providing services for other computers. Examples of host computers include a file server, which shares files and programs with other computers on the network; a Web server, which shares content with the rest of the Internet; and a mail server, which accepts email messages and sends them to the intended recipients.
bit rot:
A hypothetical disease describing the breakdown or decay over time of the underlining binary instructions that make up a program or a data file. Bit rot can be brought about by physical processes. Computers contain error correction codes to compensate for bit rot, but large amounts of bit rot may result in a program that’s so rotted it will no longer run.
grabber:
A video device that captures images from video and then changes them into a digital form the computer can understand. A grabber can refer to the hardware card that captures the video frame or the software that grabs the image and stores it as a file.
rackmounted:
Hardware devices, such as servers or monitors, designed to be installed on a metal frame. Also describes devices already installed on a metal frame.
tiger team:
In software development, a group of people who volunteer or are paid to test new applications with the goal of determining the code’s security weaknesses.
Network WinXP Computers:
If all of your WinXP computers can access the Internet via a shared router, but they can't see each other, don't panic. You can easily solve this problem by configuring your PCs to recognize each other (and share files, folders, and printers) over the network. Although your computers are physically networked, they may not yet belong to a specific network group and may lack other settings (such as file sharing settings). Some networking devices include file-sharing programs that let you configure your network, but don't worry if your equipment doesn't include such software. Windows has a built-in Network Setup Wizard that can configure your computers and put them into a network group. Once you complete the wizard on each networked PC, you'll be able to see all of your network computers' shared folders in the My Network Places window and access any shared printers. To start the wizard, click Start, All Programs, Accessories, Communications, Network Setup Wizard, and then follow the Wizard's instructions.
middle-school dance:
An annoying impasse where two pieces of equipment, such as modems, PCs, networks, and fax machines, that are attempting to communicate with each other are both sitting idle, waiting for the other to begin the transmission. While the name is amusing, and bears some nostalgia for those awkward junior high days, the equipment deadlock is anything but funny, especially when you're waiting for a data transfer.
Enable Or Disable Sidebar In Vista:
To enable or disable the Sidebar in Vista, open Control Panel and double-click Windows Sidebar Properties. Deselect the Start Sidebar When Windows Starts checkbox to turn it off or select the checkbox to turn it on and then click Apply.
persistence:
The momentary lingering of previous images on a changing computer display.
kibibyte:
From kilo binary byte, a unit of measurement that is equal to precisely 1024 bytes. Similar to the more common kilobyte. Kibibyte came about because the prefix “kilo” may refer to 1000 units or 1024 units, whereas Kibibyte strictly refers to 1024 units.
micron:
Short for micrometer, the unit of measurement used to measure the core of a fiber-optic cable, or more commonly, the elements that create the transistors on a CPU (central processing unit). A micron is one-millionth of a meter, 1/25,000 of an inch, or 1/50 of the width of a human hair. The first 486 processor measured 1 micron and the first Pentium measured 0.8 microns. The smaller the chip, the cooler and faster it can run.
Use WinXP-style Folder In Vista:
If you prefer to use WinXP's folder style in Vista, open Control Panel, double-click Folder Options, select the Use Windows Classic Folders radio button, and click Apply.
pixel:
The smallest part of an image that a computer printer or display can control. An image on a computer monitor consists of hundreds of thousands of pixels, arranged in such a manner that they appear to each be connected. Each pixel on a color monitor comprises three colored (blue, red, and green) dots. The term comes from the words picture element, and also is abbreviated PEL (pronounced pell).
highlight:
Any indication that a text block or an object has been selected with a mouse-click or the arrow keys on the keyboard. The highlight may appear as a change in the color of text or as a border around an object. A highlighted object is usually ready for some type of operation, such as deletion.
manual:
A book or a computer program that contains a set of instructions about how to use a piece of software or hardware. Most computer products are sold with some sort of users manual included in the package; manuals written by third parties can be obtained from retailers of books and computer products. In many cases, the third-party manual can contain more tutorial and troubleshooting information than the manual that was provided by the manufacturer.
data:
Distinct pieces of information, which can exist in various forms such as numbers, text, bit, bytes, or memory. This information can be processed and translated by a computer, and as a result, text, pictures, or sound appear on-screen.
Ad Hoc Networks In Vista:
Vista has the built-in ability to set up an ad hoc or temporary network between two computers. (NOTE: ad hoc networks can only be set up wirelessly in Vista, so both PCs must have wireless capabilities and be within 30 feet of each other.) These direct networks are usually created for a short period of time in order to share files or an Internet connection. In order to set up an ad hoc network, click the Connect To A Network link under Tasks in the Network And Sharing Center. Click Set Up A Connection Or Network in the window that opens. Then click Set Up An Ad Hoc (Computer-To-Computer) Network, and a wizard will walk you through the steps.
keyboard shortcut:
One or more keys that, when pressed together, equal a menu function or other function in an application usually reached through a mouse-click. Keyboard shortcuts usually are not as intuitive as point-and-click mouse commands, but the frequent user of a program can save time by learning them. One shortcut in many programs is CTRL-X, which equals the Cut option found in many Edit menus.
site map:
An organized directory of pages on a Web site.
picture in picture (PIP):
A technology that lets a user view a smaller window within a larger display. For example, with a PIP display, a person can channel surf in a corner of a television screen while watching another channel. In addition to television, PIP is often used in video conferencing.
locking:
A process that allows one person at a time full access to files contained in a network database. Locking prevents two people from trying to make changes on the same file at the same time. In most situations, a second user may view the file, but only the first one can make content changes.
Buddy List:
A personalized list of contacts with whom to communicate online. Coined by AOL, a buddy list informs the user when a contact is logged into the network so the two acquaintances can converse online.
remote printer:
A printer far from the user. It could be a shared printer in a secluded area of a building or, with the advent of printing over a network or the Internet using IPP (Internet Printing Protocol), a printer thousands of miles away.
object:
A term used in programming to denote a reusable section of code. Object-oriented programming methods use objects as the basic building blocks of programs. Objects are generally standardized so they can be used in many different types of programs without having to be rewritten each time. In graphics, the term is used to describe a distinct element, such as a block.
cookie:
Information from a Web site sent to a browser and stored on a user's hard drive so the Web site can retrieve it later. A Web server using the technology looks for a cookie when a user visits. Cookies generally are used to identify visitors. A cookie can contain information about the user's login name, password, and preferences. For subscription sites, the cookie can make it unnecessary to log in each time. Users have the option to configure their browsers to either accept or reject cookies.
RAID:
redundant array of independent disks
bottleneck:
Any component, bus, or interface that slows down an otherwise faster system or network. For example, an external hard drive and its host computer will likely be constrained by a slow parallel port connection between them. Likewise, a 56Kbps (kilobits per second) dial-up modem connection can be considered a bottleneck between a fast Web or cache server and your PC.
dinosaur pen:
Storage space that houses huge, outdated mainframe computers.
single drive:
A term used when a system only contains one hard drive inside the computer's case.
tron:
A term used to describe someone who seems to have become only accessible through electronic means, such as email or video talk, and is no longer accessible by phone or in person.
rollers:
Parts located in a printer that stretch across the width of a page and pull the paper through during the printing process.
wearable computer:
Any computing device worn on the body. Some wearable computers are portable multifunctional devices such as a PDA (portable digital assistant), mobile phone, and MP3 player designed to be worn for easy access. Some wearable computers even include a head-mounted LCD (liquid-crystal display) screen. Prototypes for future wearable computers include specially-designed power-generating clothing such as a shirt with solar cells.
talker:
Refers to an Internet site that hosts text-chatting functionality. The term is most popular among users from the United Kingdom.
halo effect:
Areas of light around bright objects that appear on a computer monitor when they shouldn't. The halo effect is a sign of an inferior monitor.
toeprint:
A particularly small footprint. Manufacturers use the term footprint to indicate how much desktop space a product consumes.
toggle:
To switch between settings, such as on and off. Also can mean the actual switch that controls these settings. For example, in Microsoft Word, the buttons controlling the switches for bold, italic, and underlined text are toggle switches, because each of those text characteristics is either on or off when the buttons are clicked.
giga (G):
Used to represent 1 billion, or 10 to the ninth power. In computer terminology, however, the prefix giga means 2 to the 20th power, or 1,073,741,824.
scalable:
A measure of how easy it is to upgrade a particular hardware or software product. For example, on a small network hub, how easy is it to add more ports to the network? Or, if a company bought a powerful computer for a Web server, can they significantly upgrade the hard drive and RAM (random-access memory)? Software scalability indicates that a product can handle heavier usage if it's given more computing power or memory. Programs that aren't scalable will crash under heavier usage conditions even if there is plenty of memory or computing power available. Scalability is a very important feature for hardware and software to have. If you're making a significant investment in a product, you should be confident that you can add to it and use it for years to come.
digital sort:
A separation process that divides and arranges digital information.
Hard bounce:
An email that is returned undelivered before being accepted by the recipient's server. A common cause is a misspelling of the domain name or the second part of the e-mail address. For example,if the sender enters yourname@sartcomputing.com instead of yourname@smartcomputing.com, a hard bounce will occur.
leaf:
A file at the bottom of a hierarchical file system that can have nothing below it. Using a tree structure analogy, the leaves connect to the branches, which connect to the roots.
keyboard buffer:
A specific location in a computer's memory where keystrokes from the keyboard are stored until the computer acts upon them. This allows fast typists to continue typing even if the computer is unable to immediately display the letters.
wire jam:
Slang term for Internet congestion. Large amounts of data are clogging a network, slowing down network performance, not unlike traffic during rush hour.
stack:
Memory buffers your computer uses like sticky notes to decide which piece of hardware is next in line to work.
key pals:
Similar to pen pals, key pals are two users who communicate frequently by email instead of written correspondence.
data manipulation:
The processing of information. The retrieval, sorting, modifying, filtering, and querying of data are a few of the primary methods of data manipulation. Essentially, data already must be present within a file or database for data manipulation to occur; it does not involve entering new data. The creation or deletion of files, however, is considered part of data manipulation.
e-paper:
A generic term used to refer to electronic paper. E-paper exhibits some of the same properties as paper. It’s thin, flexible, and inexpensive. Using special devices, however, you can create an electric image on the paper. Unlike paper, e-paper is completely reusable.
video card:
A circuit board in a computer that controls display factors such as resolution, colors displayed, and speed of images displayed. A video card cannot bring an older monitor up to its standard. Both the monitor and the video card must support a resolution, such as 800 x 600, for that resolution to be possible on the system. Today's video cards typically contain some memory so that the PC's RAM (random-access memory) isn't bogged down with handling displays. Some cards, often called video accelerators or graphics accelerators, contain a graphics coprocessor that handles graphical computations. Also called a video adapter, video board, or video controller.
wait state:
A pause in a microprocessor's clock cycles that allows for differences in speed between one component and others in a computer (such as input/output devices or RAM). Wait states are common in systems where the microprocessor has a much higher clock speed than other components, requiring the latter to "play catch up." During a wait state, the microprocessor idles for one or more cycles while data comes in from RAM or other components. Although unnoticeable to users, this idling can affect a system's performance because it involves the microprocessor's clock speed; if clock speed is reduced, system performance will slow. Wait states also are not uncommon between buses and expansion cards, where the expansion cards run slower than their buses.
cladding:
The insulation that surrounds the core of a fiber optic cable. The cable jacket is placed on top of the cladding.
contention:
A conflict when more than one computer, or more than one program in a single computer, tries to access the same resource at the same time. Different systems and networks respond in different ways; some require all parties to access the information again, while others operate on a first-come, first-served basis.
fall back:
A capability of a modem protocol that lets two modems lower their speeds to compensate for transmission problems.
global:
Action or characteristic related to the entity as a whole. For example, an action that affects an entire file, directory, program, or project.
background:
In multitasking environments such as Microsoft Windows, several applications can run simultaneously. One runs in the foreground while the others run in the background. The application or window in the foreground is active and can accept user input with a mouse, keyboard, or other device. Applications in the background cannot accept user input, but they still can run internal processes such as printing, reading and writing data to the hard drive, or performing calculations. In Windows, users can move background applications to the foreground by pressing the ALT-TAB key combination or by clicking a background window. Background also can refer to the color of the screen in DOS or Windows environments. Background colors can be selected according to the user's preference.
damping:
A technique that stifles the response of a circuit or device so it does not exceed certain limits. Damping is used to pace the flow of electricity or information within the computer.
backbone:
The part of a network that carries the majority of the data traffic. Backbones connect smaller networks, or nodes, together to create larger networks. Backbones usually transmit data at higher speeds than the rest of the network. On large networks, such as the Internet, there may be more than one backbone, all of which span long distances. On smaller networks, the backbone sometimes is called the bus.
gesture recognition:
Gesture recognition refers to the ability of a computer to read and accept human gestures as input. Instead of moving a mouse or keyboard, for instance, a simple pointing gesture might do the trick. Gesture recognition has a number of applications ranging from helping disabled individuals to video games. Gesture recognition usually involves the use of some sort of camera connected to a PC.
heatsink:
An object used to absorb and eliminate heat to prevent overheating and breaking down. Some computer components generate heat as they operate because they run so quickly. Computer manufacturers often install these small metal devices on powerful microprocessors.
balloon help:
A help system featured in many applications that uses small pop-up "balloons" of text that appear when the cursor is moved over certain spots in an application's interface. The balloons usually describe the function of a button on a toolbar. Similar to tool tips, which are rectangular pop-up help words that appear in many Windows-compatible programs.
data frame:
In a network system, a data frame is a packet of information transmitted as a single unit. This data frame exists only as it moves along, encapsulated, on the connecting cables or line. The information takes another form before and after the transmission.
magnetic media:
Any type of storage medium, such as tapes and diskettes, in which magnetic patterns represent stored values.
benchmark:
To test aspects of computer hardware or software against a known standard. When used as a noun, a benchmark usually is the result of such a test. Benchmarks are only useful if all computers or applications being tested are tested under the same conditions. When measuring the speed of computers, for instance, a benchmark utility program should attempt to perform the same operations with each machine. It also is necessary to know exactly what a benchmark is designed to test. A machine that is speedy at one type of mathematical operation could be slow at other tasks.
head slot:
The slot or opening at the top of a diskette that provides access to the magnetic diskette inside. The read/write head in a disk drive must directly access the magnetic diskette to store and retrieve information. To get to the magnetic diskette through the head slot on a 3.5-inch diskette, the drive moves a metal cover off to the side. It's simpler for a disk drive to get to the magnetic diskette inside a 5.25-inch diskette because the head slot is always uncovered.
ghosting:
When an object or icon dragged across the screen leaves a trace behind it.
tracking:
To synchronize the movement of an on-screen pointer or cursor with that of an input device such as a mouse. Also, the spacing between letters and words.
camper:
A term used in multiplayer console, PC, and Internet gaming that refers to a player who directs his or her game character to stay in roughly the same spot for the duration of the game. Sometimes campers stake out a spawn point (a location where others players returning or entering the game appear) to get an unfair kill. Other times a camper stands near a valuable item spawn point to horde that item. Campers are generally not considered to be breaking the rules, but the activities they engage in are frowned upon by most gamers.
target:
The destination file or device where source data is moved, copied, or stored, whether transferred internally or over communication lines. For example, if a user wishes to download a file from the A: drive into the C: drive, the A: drive is the source, and the C: drive is the destination and therefore the target. The target can also be the audience for whom a certain product is designed.
hit:
Each individual request made in a Web server's log. The number of hits a Web page receives equals the number of times a part of that page has been accessed. One Web page could receive as many hits as it has files to download. Typically a page will include an HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) text file and several other files including graphics, sound, video, and/or text. Thus a page made up of one HTML file and nine graphics files that receives 1,000 hits has been viewed 100 times. This information can be useful, but many advertisers are more interested in page impressions, which count the actual number of visits to a page.
key in:
To input information into a computer using a keyboard or numeric pad. Often used to describe the inputting of large amounts of data into a database.
jaggies:
Perpendicular lines on the edge of an on-screen image. Jaggies are caused by a monitor resolution setting lower than the one the application requires or by a font or graphic with poor scalability. Also called jags.
application (app):
An executable program capable of performing a specialized function other than system maintenance (which is performed by utilities). Games, educational programs, and communications software are all examples as are word processors, spreadsheets, and databases. Also called software.
Web camera:
These devices, also known as Web cams (or Webcams) and desktop digital video cameras, are small, focus on one object (such as a person sitting at a computer), and usually sit on top of a PC monitor. Web cams capture still images and video motion, and then transmit this data for such purposes as video conferencing, video email, and enhancing Web pages.
video editing:
In computing, the process of using software to manipulate images and sounds within a video media file. This can involve adding sound effects or music, shortening or rearranging segments, or adding transitions or other visual effects.
data compression:
Any method of condensing information so it can be stored in less space or transmitted in less time. Many large graphics and sound files are compressed so they can be downloaded faster. Although data compression can be done in many ways, a compression program generally looks for redundancies in a file, then compresses the identical pieces of data into one representative token. Also called data compaction.
cable segment:
A length of cable running between different PC components or between devices on a network. A segment can consist of a single cable or multiple cables connected to each other.
domain name:
The identifying title given to a system of computers, usually including the top domain and all of its subdomains. For example, a domain name, such as socrates.nd.edu, indicates that the Socrates network is found at the University of Notre Dame (nd), which is an educational institution (edu).
read-only:
Stored data that can be accessed but not altered. Usually, this term refers to information that can't be physically altered. For example, traditional CD-ROMs are created by a method of creating pits in the storage medium. Users usually can read, but not change, the information stored in this way. Read-only also may refer to the status of a file. For example, files can be placed in read-only status for security purposes. This status is used for documents such as newsletters that are available to all users on a corporate network.
card cage:
The area in the computer where cards are installed. The area usually has protective metal and mounting brackets. The term comes from an external, cage-like box where cards were on older computers.
skin:
In the computing world, there are typically two kinds of skins, one refers to images or themes that change the appearance of a user interface, and the other refers to the ability to change the look of a character in a video game. You can change the look for Web browsers such as Microsoft Internet Explorer and MP3 players such as WinAmp by adding a skin to it. Skins are usually based on a specific theme such as a movie or type of product. Video game skins are options that players can use to enhance the look of characters in a game by giving the character different clothes, for example, or by changing the character's gender or species. In both cases, end users can create their own skins and incorporate them into the programs.
account:
In communications, a registered or billed connection with a network, an online service, or an ISP (Internet service provider). Online accounts are used to keep track of connect time and monthly service costs. In multiuser networks and operating systems, accounts primarily are used for identification purposes.
case badge:
A small (usually about one inch square) sticker or metal plate applied to a computer case depicting the logo or image associated with the computer's manufacturer.
dongle:
A device that locks hardware or software to prevent unauthorized use. Often a small metal key that secures the hardware contained within a computer case. The dongle can prevent a computer from being booted.
temporary file:
A file designed to store information while a user is working with that file. Temporary files are retrieved from storage by an application and manipulated by the user, leaving the original file intact until the user saves it under the original file name. Temp files are created automatically by applications and usually are deleted automatically when they are no longer needed. The user can delete them, however, to recover disk space. Also called a temp file.
diode:
Any device or circuit that allows electrical currents to travel in one direction only.
blooming:
A term used to describe a monitor screen distortion that displays defocused images and reduced detail and sharpness in bright objects. Also refers to a problem with some digital camera sensors. Blooming occurs when camera sensors become overcharged, resulting in blurred details.
toolbar:
A row of boxes, often at the top of an application window, which control various functions of the software. The boxes often contain images that correspond with the function they control. In Microsoft Word, for example, the box that controls the print function contains an icon of a printer inside it. In most programs, toolbars can be turned on and off and often can be personalized with controls specific to an individual user's needs.
voice synthesis:
Technology that lets a computer “speak” in a human-sounding voice. A current application for voice synthesis is called text-to-speech. UC (unified communications) applications let a user retrieve her email messages over the phone, among other things. Using text-to-speech, the message server will “read” the user’s email to her.
blog hopping:
Often blogs will have links that lead to other blogs. Blog hopping involves following links from one blog to another while also visiting related sites, forums, and articles.
digital watermark:
Data inserted into copyrighted work that contains vital information, such as the author and copyright dates. Such watermarks can be viewed only with the correct software and are designed to be invisible to ordinary users.
abort:
To intentionally and prematurely terminate an active computer command.
clamshell:
The popular design for portable computers, with a shallow case hinged at the back so the screen folds up from the keyboard.
job:
A specified operation completed by the system. A job can be as simple as saving a document or as complex as organizing data into a report.
bomb:
To end prematurely, hang without allowing user input, or otherwise fail. Applications are said to bomb, while entire systems usually are said to crash. However, the terms can be used interchangeably. In Windows, the CTRL-ALT-DELETE key combination sometimes can regain control of or end an application that has bombed.
jump page:
An intermediate Web page that can prelude a Web site’s home page. When users click an advertisement, the ad tag sends them to a special site the advertiser has created to continue the ad. Jump pages often include rich media. Also called a splash page.
display image:
The collection of icons, graphics, and text displayed on-screen at a given time.
voice verification:
A biometric technology that measures the characteristics of a user’s voice against templates created during initial use. Users speak into a microphone, and the computer measures variables such as cadence, pitch, tone, and the shape of the speaker’s larynx to verify identities. Since users can easily change some of the variables involved at will, voice verification is not considered as accurate as other biometric techniques such as retinal scans or fingerprint verification. However, it is generally cheaper to implement than such methods because it doesn’t require special or costly hardware.
digitize:
The process of converting linear pictorial images into digital data for storage. For example, a scanner converts a non-digital image, such as a portrait or photograph, into a digital format of positively (1) and negatively (0) charged signals so the image can be stored on a hard drive. Likewise, a sound card can digitize a sound by translating it from analog (its actual sound) to digital (a form that can be read by a computer).
license agreement:
A packet of legal paperwork that allows users to purchase the use of a software company's product. It does not transfer ownership. Most license agreements appear on a software's package, and when the package is opened, users agree to the terms listed.
graphic:
The digital version of an image, photograph, or picture displayed on a monitor screen. The computer must change photographs or other images into the digital form of files for it to understand and work with them.
e-form:
An electronic form used to gather information about a user. E-forms are used to provide feedback, make inquiries, order merchandise, sign up for services, and more.
black level:
The darkest black a computer monitor is capable of producing. The black level in a good monitor should be purely black.
pin feed:
A kind of printer feed used with continuous-feed paper that has holes along the left and right sides. The tractor feed is named for the sprocketed wheels, which look like tractor wheels, that fit into the holes in the paper and pull the paper through the printer. Also called tractor feed.
single step:
To execute a program one step at a time. Usually used to find the flaw or error that is causing a program to run improperly.
leapfrog attack:
In a leapfrog attack, a malicious user "borrows" a user ID and password from any of a number of sources, such as a file containing IDs and passwords, and uses it to penetrate another system. A user can also use this tactic to make it difficult for other computers to trace him.
download count:
This number represents the number of times a software program has been downloaded from the Internet by users. It is often used to signify a program's popularity.
stylus:
A pen-shaped instrument used with graphics tablet or touch screen input devices to write or draw on the computer screen as on a sheet of paper.
dual-boot system:
A computer that has two OSes (operating systems) installed, each in a separate partition. When the user starts the computer, a menu appears from which the user can choose the desired OS.
game-play:
Refers to the way a gamer interacts with other elements in the game. Often found in game reviews, the term is also used as a means to rate the quality of the experience the player had while playing a particular game.
resample:
Refers to changing the resolution of a digital image. An image can be resampled up or down, meaning the resolution can be increased or decreased with the use of software.
mickey:
A mickey is the unit of measurement used in determining the speed and movement direction of a computer mouse. The speed of the mouse is determined by the ratio of how many pixels the cursor moves on the screen to how many centimeters the mouse moves on the mouse pad. Directional movement is referred to in terms of a horizontal mickey count and a vertical mickey count. One mickey is roughly 1/200 of an inch.
name caching:
A method of storage used by a router that keeps track of addresses and host names to provide quick access when future packets are sent.
split screen:
A software-activated division of the screen in which different documents can be displayed. Each document can be manipulated individually. Also called split window.
laganoia:
The fear of being ignored or ostracized in the online community brought about by delays in Internet chat rooms, message boards, and Internet telephony communications due to a network lag. People communicating by such means may experience laganoia if responses to their messages are a long time coming. Sometimes, though, other users are responding, but responses take a long time because of poor bandwidth or problems with transmittal from one portion of the Internet to another.
jabber:
A component of a network, typically a NIC (network interface card), that is operating incorrectly. A jabber will send a continuous stream of incorrect or meaningless data to the rest of the network, which could cause the entire network to stop working.
header:
A section of a message, ordinarily at the beginning, that routes it to its destination and often identifies the sender. Another type of header is text such as numbers or chapter titles that appear at the top of each page in a document. In data storage, a header lists a file's name, size, and the time and date of its creation or revision. In a database, a header is a record identifying the fields and kinds of information in the following data records.
Network cloud:
The unpredictable area of a network that data passes through. Clouds exist because data sent in packets can take various paths to reach the same end point.
device conflict:
A device conflict occurs when a device attempts to access a port that is in use by another device.
wet cell:
Early batteries often used some sort of liquid solution as an electrolyte. This liquid solution could spill or leak and was often harmful if not Handled properly. Dry cell batteries eventually replaced wet cell batteries because they were versatile and durable.
Baby Bill:
Slang for each of the smaller companies a breakup of Microsoft would create. When the Department of Justice declared Microsoft a monopoly, it proposed That Microsoft split into two companies, or Baby Bills, an applications-based company and an operating systems-based company.
shadow printing:
A printing technique that produces a replica of each character in a lighter shade and slightly off center so it appears the letter has a shadow.
dirty power:
A term used to describe an increase or decrease in electrical power that can damage the circuitry of a computer. Dirty power can be in the form of spikes or surges.
kiosk:
A computer and a display screen that display information in public areas. Kiosks can display simple rotating graphics or HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)pages. More complicated, interactive kiosks allow a user to access the information they want. Kiosks are used to provide information about a specific location,to provide directions, or to provide countless other services to the public. An ATM is a good example of a kiosk.
failover:
To automatically switch operation from a defective device to a good one. Essentially, the work completed by the faulty device fails over onto the one thatis working properly.
data signal:
The form in which information is transmitted within a computer or a network. Data signals usually are binary codes transmitted between devices. Data signals might consist of viewable information, such as documents or graphics, or internal computer information, such as virus checks or control characters.
generation:
A computer introduced as a result of a technological breakthrough. Hardware, such as microprocessors, also can be classified in generations. For instance,Intel's Pentium processor line makes up the generation following the company's 80486 CPU (central processing unit) line. Programmers may also refer togenerations of commands, implying a lineage of processes (one process that may give rise to other processes). When users store files in directories and subdirectories, this relation is sometimes expressed in generations (with a grandmother, mother, and daughter directory or file).
jack in:
Slang term for logging in to a computer or network.
tablet computer:
Like a notebook computer, a tablet computer is a portable PC that runs on batteries or AC (alternating current), is 1 or 2 inches thick, and is roughly the width and length of a writing tablet or notebook (8.5 x 11 inches). Although notebook computers typically have an LCD (liquid-crystal display) screen that's attached to the notebook via hinges, a tablet computer typically has a touch-sensitive LCD screen that is part of the main device.
Gopher:
A menu-driven, search-and-retrieval tool that helps Internet users locate information online through menus, which are itemized according to collections of information and stored databases. The menus also may lead to other menus, files, and search tools. Developed at the University of Minnesota in 1991 and named after the school's mascot, the Golden Gophers, Gopher lets users retrieve data over the Internet without using complicated commands and addresses.
stuck pixel:
A pixel in an LCD (liquid-crystal display) monitor that doesn't work correctly and is always turned on (or stuck as) a certain color, usually red, green, or blue.
nagware:
A pop-up box that nags the user to update, register, or pay for the software. Nags can occur at random while using the software. Nags can also occur when you start or close the software. Usually, the user must perform some sort of action to close the pop-up box.
wafer:
A flat disk of silicon crystal sliced from a larger piece. Used in semiconductor chip manufacturing, these disks are approximately 1/30th-inch to 1/50th-inch thick and 3 to 6 inches in diameter. Made to hold circuitry components, wafers are eventually enclosed in another substance, such as plastic or metal.
macro virus:
A virus that travels as a macro embedded in documents, especially Microsoft Word and Excel documents. Such viruses remain dormant until the infected file is opened. Then, if the virus is malicious, the virus may damage other files, perform a prank, or infect other files. Some macro viruses will delete all files in a directory or your entire hard drive. Others are more benign, simply attaching their code to documents. Once an infected file is opened, the virus will usually infect all files that are opened afterward until the virus is removed by software that disinfects the appropriate template file. Macro viruses are quickly spread through email messages or shared files. Antivirus scanning software should be used and updated so macro viruses can be caught before they infect a system.
online profiling:
A method used by some Web sites and marketing companies to track the surfing habits of visitors to their sites. Online profiling is common among shopping sites. It may include noting which products a visitor appears interested in or buys. This data is then used to target products and services to the person visiting the site. The data may be collected with or without the permission and knowledge of visitors to the Web site.
compaction:
The act of defragmenting information stored in memory, thereby arranging data so the largest free space possible is created.
Translator:
A tool to convert one language into another that more closely resembles machine code. Translators are also called language processors and include assemblers, compilers, interpreters, and preprocessors.
shortcut key (accelerator key):
A key or key combination that executes a specific function or command within an application or operating system. For example, the F7 key in Microsoft Word 6.0 initiates the spelling checker while the F12 key initiates the Save As command. Also called an application shortcut key. A shortcut key can be specified with a specific software package, such as using the ALT key plus the first letter of a pull-down menu option, or it could be a user-created macro.
modding:
The act of modifying a piece of hardware or software to perform a function not intended or authorized by the original manufacturer. In gaming, changing a game's code to alter game play; for example, adding new content to existing games, or "total conversion" mods which change the game significantly.
gamma testing:
A term for the expected customer feedback after a product's official release. Gamma testing is a play on the term "beta testing", which is the testing software or hardware undergoes before release. Some critics derisively use the term to chastise companies that knowingly release an undertested product, leaving customers to find and report bugs.
yoyo mode:
A slang expression for a PC that alternates between working and nonworking states. One minute a PC is up and working, the next minute it's down.
graphics tablet:
A rectangular, flat input device that controls an on-screen cursor by tracing a finger or a stylus across the surface of the tablet. A graphics tablet is used instead of a mouse or trackball when more intricate cursor control is needed, such as when using a drawing or graphics program. Also called a digitizer, digitizing tablet, or drawing tablet.
radio button:
A circle that represents choices in a common option list form in graphical user interfaces. Only one item in a list with radio buttons can be selected at a time. To select an item in such a list, the user clicks the radio button in front of the desired option, and a dot appears in the circle of the radio button to show the option has been selected. The name radio button comes from the fact that these buttons are similar to those on a radio; choosing one automatically undoes the previous choice.
Half-life:
The term comes from scientific disciplines, where it is most often used as a measurement for the amount of time a radioactive substance takes to lose half of its atoms. In technology, it refers to the amount of time that it takes for a storage device to loose half of its effectiveness.
email spoofing:
By altering the headers in an email message, someone with the proper know-how can make an email message appear as if it came from someone or somewhere else.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol:
the protocol most often used to send email) doesn't include much security, making it possible for people to forge, or spoof, the origins of the email.
video buffer:
A section of memory that holds information before it is sent to the monitor. The video buffer also called a screen buffer or regeneration buffer is usually a part of the video card.
Smart Tags:
Smart Tags are a technology found in Microsoft Office XP. Smart Tags can be used to link portions of a document with other documents or information on the Internet or company intranet. Microsoft was playing with the idea of adding Smart Tags to the next version of Internet Explorer. The plan met with some resistance from Web designers and others who were afraid Microsoft would abuse the Smart Tag technology.
back door:
An entry way into a password-protected system that bypasses having to actually use a password. In some systems, designers usually deliberately leave a back door so technicians can enter a system later for maintenance or other purposes.
misconvergence:
When one or more of the three-color beams inside a monitor do not align on the screen. This is often seen as a blurring of color onto parts of the monitor that should not have it. Also called convergence error.
aperture ring:
A rotating ring usually just behind the focusing ring on a camera. This ring lets you control the amount of light you let into the camera. Only professional-level digital cameras currently have aperture rings.
optimal resolution:
Usually relating to monitors, the screen pixel resolution and refresh rate the manufacturer recommends for optimal, flicker-free performance.
halftone:
In desktop publishing, a halftone image is created using dots. Changes are made in brightness and tone. For example, black-and-white dots create different shades of gray (more black dots will create a darker area). When all these levels and layers of gray are printed, they blend and form the image. The higher the resolution of the image and printer, the smoother the image of black-and-white dots and the greater number of gray tones possible.
vulnerability scanning:
Vulnerability scanning automatically examines a network for known security holes that could be exploited by outsiders to gain access to a network. The software contains a database of known vulnerabilities and examines a network for these vulnerabilities. Vulnerability scanning is typically employed by companies and corporations looking to close security holes before they're exploited.
cable connector:
The plug at either cable end. One end plugs into the computer, and the other plugs into the device being hooked up to the computer. Connectors are either male (containing pins) or female (containing sockets). The type of cable often determines the shape of the connectors. For example, most cable connectors for mice or keyboards are round, while printer cables have trapezoidal connectors.
Encrypting A File:
When you encrypt a file, you translate the original contents into a code to keep the file secret. Data encryption software uses advanced algorithms to encode a file's contents so they can't be read by anyone who doesn't have the proper key to unscramble them. Encryption algorithms are mathematical, or they apply other rules to files, which systematically change the contents of those files. When children pass secret messages in class, they might use the alphabet replacement method where they write "a" for "b" and "b" for "c" and so on. The shifting of the letters is the algorithm, and nobody could crack the code without knowing which or how many letters were shifted. Encrypting data of any type involves processing a message through an algorithm to scramble it.
balance:
A control feature often found in computer or stereo speakers. The balance control adjusts the amount of sound you hear from the right or left speakers. Generally, the balance should be adjusted so that the sound level from both speakers is the same.
tab:
An indention at the beginning of a line to signify a new paragraph in a document. Usually about five spaces, tabs are primarily used to ensure equal spacing from line to line. There is also a tab called the write-protect tab on diskettes. When in a certain position, this tab prevents data on the diskette from being overwritten or erased. See 3.5-inch diskette. See 5.25-inch diskette.
back up:
To copy a file or files to an alternate location so a safe copy remains if the original is destroyed or damaged. A single file or an entire drive can be backed up if media of sufficient size are available. Because of their large capacity, magnetic tape drives often are used for backing up information. Backup programs often save files in a compressed format that occupies less space on the backup media. This means that to view the backed-up files, the program that backed them up must be used to restore them to their original form. See restore.
hot swap:
To replace a computer component while the computer is on. This ability is especially important for mainframe computers or servers in a client-server system that can't afford downtime. These computers generally have redundant parts, such as hard drives and power supplies, to ensure reliability, and these parts can be switched out if they fail. Storage systems on client-server networks also often use hot swap functions for the same reasons. For personal computers, the advent of the USB (Universal Serial Bus) standard lets users hot swap peripherals into USB ports; the computer automatically recognizes them without rebooting.
walled garden:
An environment on the Internet that prohibits users from accessing specific material or Web sites. Such an environment may not make it impossible to access this information, but it makes it more difficult. For example, in 1999, America Online's Kid's Channel in the United Kingdom created a walled garden to shield children from unsuitable material.
doctor blade:
In laser printers, a doctor blade is a straight edge set a precise distance from the developer roller. It ensures that just the right amount of toner sticks to the roller. The doctor blade scrapes away any excess toner.
dye sublimation:
A printing process in which a printhead heats tiny sections of a colored ribbon to transfer ink to the paper. A dye sublimation printer may use three or four colored ribbons or perhaps a single ribbon with differently colored sections. See thermal transfer printer.
card:
A printed circuit board or adapter that plugs into a computer to add a new function such as modem capabilities or hardware device support. The term also refers to the punched cards used for data storage and entry devices in early computing. See punched card.
dummy:
A temporary file, document, program, process, or alphanumeric character that is used to hold a place for another file, document, program, process, or character. When the actual information is available, the dummy information is deleted. Dummy is often required as a place holder when a program cannot deal with blank spaces while waiting for data to arrive.
suite:
A program package that combines a number of other, seemingly distinct, programs into a single package. Also called integrated software.
character string:
A series of characters treated as text. Character strings can contain numbers and letters.
crack:
To break into a computer system, typically with the intent to steal or otherwise manipulate information, or to do damage to the system itself.
direct access:
The ability of a computer to locate and retrieve data immediately from a storage device, without having to start at the beginning and read all the data.
multisession:
A way of recording CD-ROM discs that adds data in blocks instead of recording the entire disc at once. For example, half of the disc could be written one day and the rest written a few weeks later. Some older CD-ROM drives can't read multisession discs. This type of recording is used by some CD-R (CD-recordable) drives and all CD-RW (CD-rewriteable) drives.
diffuse:
In an image-editing program, this is a technique used to displace colors in an image, giving it an impressionistic look.
wizard:
A feature that provides step-by-step instructions to lead users through certain tasks in applications. Unlike online help menus, which often must be read before executing a task or printed out, wizards use dialog boxes that walk users through each step of a process. Also can describe an extraordinary programmer.
workbook:
A term used by Microsoft Excel to describe a spreadsheet file. A workbook can contain numerous spreadsheets in a single file.
halt:
The command issued to immediately shut down a Linux system. This command is usually called by issuing the shutdown command.
vacuum tube:
A glass tube from which all gas has been removed, creating a vacuum. Such tubes containing electrodes for controlling electron flow were used in early computers (before semiconductors) as a switch or an amplifier. Vacuum tubes allowed digital computations at what was then considered a high speed.
rocker switch:
Unlike a traditional switch that trips when it is switched, a rocker switch rocks between the on and off positions, hence its name. When one side of the switch is moved to a down position, the other side is always up. Switching on the up side will change the position of the two and trip the switch. You can find rocker switches on many kinds of computers and computer add-ons, including various power devices, surge protectors, monitors, and others.
quarantine:
To place a file that is infected with a virus or otherwise poses a threat in a directory where it cannot do any harm. Functions that divert threatening files to a quarantined directory are typically part of antivirus software.
hello packet:
A packet sent over a network by a system containing information such as the IP (Internet Protocol) address of the system, to indicate the system is ready to receive and transmit data.
terminal:
A set of hardware normally composed of a keyboard and a monitor that lets users communicate with the internal CPU (central processing unit), which is the "brain" of the computer.
electrode:
A conductor through which current flows. Batteries, for instance, have two electrodes, the positive electrode is also known as the anode and the negative electrode is known as the cathode.
null cycle:
The absolute minimum length of time required to completely execute a program without introducing new data or extraneous processing.
lapping:
The process of smoothing, finishing or achieving an extremely close tolerance on the heat-absorbing side of the heatsink, with the idea that heat will transfer more efficiently with a tighter fit between the heatsink and heat-generating component.
reboot:
To restart the computer and reload the operating system. Many types of computers reboot when the key combination CTRL-ALT-DELETE is pressed. In Windows 95 and newer, rebooting can also be done by selecting Shut Down from the Start menu, then clicking Restart The Computer. Rebooting is sometimes the only way to regain control over a computer that is frozen due to error. Rebooting a computer, however, causes all unsaved data in open applications to be lost.
cold fault:
An error that takes place after starting a computer. This failure usually is caused by a mis-alignment within the computer by the expansions and contractions that occur because of temperature fluctuations when the computer is turned on and off. To avoid this, some users leave the computer running when not in use and only shut off the monitor.
prompt:
A symbol indicating that the computer is waiting for you to enter information in order to continue.
workstation:
A setup composed of a computer and peripheral devices that enable someone to do their work. In terms of processing power, workstations fall between personal computers and minicomputers. Also can designate any computer connected to a network.
vertex:
In computing, 3-D graphics are created by combining numerous triangles to form a desired shape. The term “vertex” typically refers to the individual points or corners of these triangles—the points where two sides of a triangle meet. These vertices are, in fact, the very “virtual matter” that creates a 3-D object.
kiloflop:
1,000 floating point operations.
warping:
An effect in some digital imaging software programs where algorithms are applied to an image, bending it, and ultimately giving it a spherical shape.
hybrid:
In computers, hybrid refers to a device that is made of two or more technologies. A hybrid computer has both analog and digital capabilities. It uses both analog-to-digital conversion and digital-to-analog conversion so it can read and produce analog and digital data. Robots, for instance, are hybrid computer systems. They accept a command in digital format (the program instructs the machine using binary data) and execute a function in analog format (the robot walks). On the flip side, the robot might use an analog sensor to recognize an object, but it will use a digital computer to process what to do with it. ADCs (analog–to-digital converters) transform factors, such as temperature, motion, pressure, sound, and images, into a binary code the robot can understand.
thermal adhesive:
A glue-like substance specifically designed to connect metal pieces and conduct heat between them. Thermal adhesive is made of substances such as aluminum or silver and is available in syringes or tubes with applicators. Thermal adhesive is not used to connect certain sensitive components; for example, the substance is not intended for attaching a heatsink to a processor.
hub:
A hub is a piece of equipment that provides a connection point for a group of computers and peripherals, and it works on a low-level network protocol layer. Just like a wheel on a bicycle, a hub is a central point from which the spokes, or in this case, cables, fan out. Hubs are commonly used in LANs (local-area networks), where two or more computers are sharing the same devices, such as printers, Internet connection, scanners, and so on. The cables for these devices are plugged into ports in the hub. Data is sent to the hub, which then distributes it to other areas on the network. For example, someone working on a computer can send a file to a printer, but that request must be channeled through the hub before it reaches the printer. Most hubs support the Ethernet standard, meaning the hub accepts an Ethernet cable, which also plugs into an NIC (network interface card). There are also non-Ethernet hubs, including Token Ring. A hub can be passive, active, or intelligent. Passive hubs simply accept an electric signal from an incoming packet and broadcast it to the rest of the network. An active hub, sometimes called a repeater, amplifies the signal before sending it to the rest of the network. Amplification guarantees that the signal has enough power to make it throughout the network. An intelligent hub, or manageable hub, is similar to an active hub, but it has extra features. For instance, it provides bridging, routing, and switching and supports remote management and virtual LANs.
The term “hub topology” is used to describe how larger networks are arranged. A hub topology has a main area from which outgoing lines run, and each line has connection ports for attaching devices. ISPs (Internet service providers) use this format for providing access to their subscribers.
Telenet:
One of the largest PDNs (public data networks) in the United States. Telenet serves as the communications backbone for many online services.
keycap:
The part of a key on the keyboard seen in normal use. Under the plastic keycap marked by a symbol is the actual key, which is a small switch.
zettabyte:
A unit of measurement equal to 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 bytes, 2 to the 70th power bytes, or roughly 10 to the 21st power. It's also the equivalent of 1,024 exabytes.
zoo virus:
A term used to describe computer viruses that exist only in research labs. Used primarily as tools for scientists and programmers, these infectors (estimated to number at least 20,000) make up the majority of existing computer viruses. However, they pose no danger to the public’s computer systems until released “in the wild.
XY coordinates:
Refers to points along the horizontal and the vertical axes of the computer screen, usually starting in the lower-left corner of the screen. Each pixel (the color dots that make up the screen display) on the display screen has a location on the map of the screen that identifies it to the programs that make the screen addressable (meaning the mouse can tell where it is on the screen and let the application know). Generally, the x-coordinate is the number of pixels going across the screen and the y-coordinate is the number of pixels going up the screen. When the pair intersects, that intersection represents a specific location on the screen.
When programming Web sites and Web-deployed applications, it is common to define the location of the pixel (or set of pixels) in relation to a specific area of the screen. This is the method used to create areas on the screen that will respond to the click or double-click of the mouse. The programmer defines an area that will be sensitive to the mouse activity by outlining the XY coordinates that constitute the boundaries of the area and then linking that area to a URL (uniform resource locator) that contains additional information that the programmer or designer wishes the user to see. Because there are millions of pixels on each screen, the programmer relies on software that creates the coordinate mapping, rather than trying to map each coordinate manually.
This approach creates what’s known as an image map on the Web page. The “map” is really a graphic (it could, in fact, be an image of an actual map) with its coordinates mapped and with sets of coordinates linked to other HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) pages. The image map thus serves as a sort of menu. For example, in the case of a mapped picture of an actual United States map, clicking on one state might take the user to information about that state, while clicking on another state takes the user to a different page. The image could also simply be a product photo that links to information about a product
kermit:
A FTP (File Transfer Protocol) that works over phone lines and is noted for its relatively slow speed and high accuracy. Most communications programs allow users to select Kermit as the protocol for a specific transfer or as the default protocol for all transfers.
hacker:
A technically sophisticated user who spends a lot of time at a computer. It refers to a person who writes computer programs, "hacking" up the digital code. Hacker is often erroneously used, instead of cracker, to refer to those who illegally break into computer systems to do damage, steal secrets, or enter simply because they can.
backside bus:
Another term for the data bus that runs between the (CPU) central processing unit and the L2 (level 2) cache memory. The backside bus is typically faster than the frontside bus because cache memory usually offers faster access times than system memory, allowing the bus to closer approximate the speed of the CPU.
nanowire:
A wire that is one nanometer (one thousandth of one millimeter) thick. Nanowires are used as semiconductors, barcodes, and LEDs (light-emitting diodes), depending on their chemical composition.
nastygram:
The nastiest form of nastygram, an ill-tempered, malicious, or disapproving e-mail message, has its roots in Unix systems, where users on different terminals share one large computer.
It was possible to send e-mail containing computer code that would freeze up the recipient’s terminal or computer or execute as a program in order to do something prankish or even damaging. Known as letterbombs, these nastygrams were the ancestors of the modern e-mail attacks that try to trick recipients into downloading and running attached virus programs.
The term also refers to a more formal and legitimate style of unwanted e-mail in the form of a rebuke from an online authority. An example would be a warning for breaking some rule of a newsgroup or e-mail list, such as an off-topic posting or letting an argument get out of hand.
Programmers have sometimes used the term nastygram to refer to an e-mail message that expresses dissatisfaction or criticism from a client or from superiors within the company. In this context, nastygram carries the connotation of criticism that’s overly nitpicky or otherwise unfair.
Less commonly, nastygram may refer to automated unpleasant e-mail, such as bounce notices to let you know that an e-mail message you sent is undeliverable. But as mail handling robots have no ill will in their messages, however unwelcome they may be, the reference to automatic mail as nastygrams is often facetious.
myria:
A metric prefix meaning ten thousand. A myriabyte would be 10KB or 0.01MB. The symbols for myria are ma or my.
SPDIF:
Sony Philips Digital Interface Format A type of interface used to connect a variety of electrical components, primarily audio devices.
ATAPI:
Advanced Technology Attachment Packet Interface (ATAPI)
An extension to the EIDE (Enhanced IDE) interface that supports CD-ROM and tape drives, which were left out of the original EIDE and IDE standards. Also known as Fast AT Attachment (Fast ATA), this is an updated version of the Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) storage interface that works with hard drives and CD-ROM drives. It can shuttle data to and from the drive three to four times faster than the IDE standard (transferring data between 11MB and 16.6MB per second) and can support data storage devices that store up to 8GB more than IDE drives. Also known as ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment), the EIDE standard lets storage devices, such as hard drives and CD-ROM drives, connect to computers. Initially, EIDE supported drives of approximately 8GB in size, and it supported data speed rates between 11MBps (megabytes per second) and 16.6MBps. Once the 8GB limit was overcome by better support from a PC’s BIOS (Basic Input/Output System; the underlying software that lets a PC use basic hardware), the theoretical limit for ATA drives became 137GB, but users can expect this limit will be breached, just like all the others. Currently, the largest ATA or EIDE drives are about 120GB in size.
EIDE is an upgrade to the older IDE (or Advanced Technology Attachment) standard, which supported drives of 528MB and was only one-third to one-fourth as fast as first-generation EIDE. The primary competitor to the EIDE standard is SCSI (Small Computer System Interface), which is common in Apple computers; SCSI generally allows greater speeds, but it is expensive and more difficult to use. The latest descendents of the standard are Ultra ATA-66, which offers speeds up to 66MBps, and Ultra ATA-100, which offers speeds up to 100MBps. Also, keep on the lookout for Serial ATA, a new standard that should offer even greater speeds.
Serial ATA (SATA):
A new interface for internal devices such as hard drives, debuting in 2002. Serial ATA, initially having a theoretical maximum throughput of 150MBps, allows better signal timing and higher speeds than the parallel EIDE standards such as Ultra ATA/133/100/66. SATA also enables easier device setup and better airflow within the computer case with less obstructive data cables. Industry analysts expect SATA eventually to supplant EIDE.
complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS):
An electronic component used for RAM and fast data switching. CMOS semiconductors are made of two metal-oxide field effect transistors for high speed and low power use. However, they can be damaged by static electricity. (Pronounced see-moss.) A type of computer chip that requires very little power. This makes it particularly suitable for use in notebook computers, which need to get as much life as possible out of each battery charge, and for the computer memory holding system startup information.
PCs contain a CMOS memory chip that stores information the computer needs each time it boots up. This includes things such as the date and time, as well as information about the system configuration—how many disk drives and what kind, how much memory, what type of processor, and so on. Without this information, a computer is very limited in how it can operate.
Computer memory requires power, so most memory empties out when a computer is powered down. Because the CMOS chip requires so little power, it is run continuously off a battery inside the computer. A single battery is usually enough to power the CMOS for the life of the computer. Therefore, whenever the computer is powered on, the information in the CMOS can load right in for immediate use by the computer's BIOS (Basic Input/ Output System).
When you turn on your computer, you usually see a lot of information flash on the screen about memory, video card in use, etc. The computer is actually running diagnostic tests on its components and initializing those components for use, based on information pulled up from the CMOS.
chapter:
In DVDs, a chapter is each independent section on the disc. This can be compared to tracks on CDs.
portable language:
A type of programming language used to create software for more than one type of computer system.
abscissa:
The x coordinate on an (x, y) graph. See Ordinate.
cable matcher:
A device that lets a cable be attached to a device that requires slightly different wire connections.
femto:
An International System of Units (SI) prefix meaning one quadrillionth, or 10 to the negative 15th power. For example, a femtosecond would be one quadrillionth of a second, or 1/1,000,000,000,000,000th of a second. The symbol for femto- is f.
nesting:
The placement of one object within another. In computing, this refers to the placement of a graphic in a word processing document or a text document within a database. A set of instructions also can be nested in another set of instructions or within a document activated when selected. Programmers also can nest programming loops within other programming loops.
necrocam:
A Web camera positioned in the coffin of a deceased person. The term comes from the Dutch film of the same name, which used the idea as a way to comment on the extremes to which technology can lead us.
trunk:
In telephone systems, a trunk is a connection between two main switching stations. The trunk carries several lines of voice and data transmissions simultaneously.
quit:
To end a session with a program by purposely closing the application.
ubiquity:
A quality attributed to anything that seems to be everywhere at all times. Often used in technology circles to describe technologies in widespread use. Some may say mobile phones, for instance, are ubiquitous.
Aloha:
A data transmission standard developed in the late 1960s by Norman Abramson and a team of researchers at the University of Hawaii. Using TDMA (time division multiple access) technology, Aloha transmitted data in packets containing addressing information, and in the event of a collision the data was retransmitted. Aloha was the basis for Alohanet, a precursor to the Ethernet network standard.
long-haul:
A communications device, such as a modem, that can transmit and receive signals from distances of more than one mile. Most modems are long-haul modems. Compare to short-haul.
wiki:
A wiki is a type of collaborative blog. Instead of one author providing and editing content, any user can post content and edit the content of others.
Mathematica:
Computers are obviously good at crunching numbers and allowing for detailed simulations. Until Mathematica was released in 1988, however, no single program could harness all that power and let scientists, engineers, theorists, and programmers bend it to their will. Individual applications were available before then that were designed to perform specific tasks, but Mathematica let just about anybody do just about anything math-related.
Stephen Wolfram designed Mathematica and Wolfram Research, a company he founded in 1987. The software completely revolutionized the field of technical computing, providing users with a single package that could perform practically any mathematical calculation. From physics calculations and astronomical star charts to electrical circuit design and economics equations, if it involves numbers, Mathematica can handle it. From the very beginning, Mathematica could handle symbolic equations and had powerful graphing abilities, and the product has improved steadily over the years, adding more features while retaining its ease-of-use. The core of the software is a powerful programming language that lets users write programs in a variety of ways. Several add-on packages also are available that give people in specific fields tools they can use to do their jobs more efficiently. Optica, for example, is a package that makes it easy to solve optical engineering problems without having to write any fundamental programs to get started. The software also links directly into other programs, such as Microsoft Excel, letting users apply Mathematica’s power to nearly any other application that involves numbers. It can even be integrated into Web pages to create interactive graphs and calculations. This connectivity works both ways, as output from Mathematica can be easily sent to an external program, such as an application designed to render high-resolution 3D graphs.
More than 20,000 copies of Mathematica were sold within months of its original release, and the number of users today has expanded into the millions. Professionals now view the software as an indispensable tool, and students use it in many high school and college math courses. An ever-increasing number of Web designers use an offshoot of the original software, webMathematica, to add interactive calculations to their sites.
snow:
A cast of pixels on a monitor that appear as small, white, flickering dots. Snow can be caused by simple interference or by conflicts within the video memory.
cold boot:
To turn on the computer after it has been shut off. Also called cold start. Compare to warm boot. See boot.
unbundled:
Software or hardware that once was included with several other products (a bundle) but was removed from the packaging or is sold separately. For example, games and word processing applications often are bundled with new computers and included in the price. When the product is sold separately, however, it is considered unbundled. Compare to bundled software.
jam:
A signal from an Ethernet device alerting all other devices that a collision has occurred and to stop transmitting. The purpose of a jam is to clear the network's data transmission lines and have all devices begin attempting to send data again. See collision.
texel:
Texture element. The smallest component of a texture in a 3-D image.
daisywheel:
A printing mechanism shaped like a round disk with a number of spokes, or arms, that extend from its center. Each arm has a fully formed character on its tip. The arm hits the ribbon, and the impact makes a mark on the paper. One daisywheel contains all the characters for one font only; a change in fonts requires a different daisywheel. Daisywheels are found on a daisywheel printer. Also called print wheel.
firewall:
Software or hardware that limits or restricts certain kinds of computer access from a network or other outside source. A router is a good example of a hardware device that often has a built-in firewall. Firewalls are used to thwart would-be hackers from infiltrating computer systems. See hacker.
wand:
A pen-like scanning device, a wand is commonly used with such hardware peripherals as bar code readers. Also used to describe a stylus used with graphics tablets. To scan text with a wand, a user passes the tip of the wand over text; the optical scanning mechanism in the wand takes the text it has "read" and passes it along to the computer for processing.
metadata:
Metadata is technically data about data. NTFS (NT file system) uses the concept of metadata frequently. In NTFS metadata maintains information about the various files on the system including a file's location on the hard drive, file name, and security information. Metadata may also track information about the hard drive in general. For instance, bad clusters that can no longer reliably hold information are tracked using metadata. Most metadata resides in the Master File Table or MFT although, technically, the MFT itself is a metadata file. Media metadata is a type of metadata many users may recognize. For instance, an MP3's (Moving Pictures Experts Group Audio Layer 3's) metadata may contain information such as song title, artist, and album. This data is visible in most media players as well as in the file's properties. See NT file system (NTFS).
safety ring:
A plastic ring that fits into a reel of magnetic tape to prevent its files from being overwritten or erased. See file protect ring.
vendor ID:
A number that allows plug-and-play systems to identify an added device and configure it properly. The number indicates the device's manufacturer, model, and version number.
exit:
A command or option that will let users leave and close a program. It may require a special keystroke or key combination in a DOS program, or it may require users to select the Exit option from the File menu in a Windows program.
unarchive:
To restore files from an archive or backup to their original location, usually a hard drive. Compare to archive file.
pack:
To compress data, or "smash" it together by taking out excess space, so it occupies less space when stored or transmitted. Compressed data must be decompressed before it can be used again. Compare to unpack. See data compression.
garbage:
Although an unsophisticated user tends to denounce any type of unreadable images that appear on his screen as garbage, the true definition of garbage is meaningless, unnecessary data the computer places in the RAM. Garbage collection is a system for automatically reclaiming this storage space in programs, ensuring that systems aren't needlessly tied up by preserving RAM data that is no longer needed (The failure to clean up memory that is no longer being used is called a memory leak). Such garbage collection, which frees programmers from having to write software that explicitly requests storage and returns it to the system when no longer needed, is also known as automatic storage (or memory) allocation.
A garbage collection program must first identify unneeded data and then make the storage area it occupies available for use by the computer again. An object in a program is considered live if the program might access that object in the future. If not, the object is considered dead. Many garbage collection programs consider a given object dead if the program has eliminated all pointers to it. Some programs keep track of the pointers on each object and designate it dead when the count falls to zero. Others keep track of which objects are considered live and eliminate dead objects not within that group.
Early garbage collection programs only kicked in after the amount of memory used reached a particular limit. Once across that threshold, the program would pause to examine all its memory, causing delays. More modern garbage collection programs kick in every time memory is allocated or when there are pauses in activity. It was first developed for languages such as LISP (list processing), a high-level programming language developed in 1960 for use in artificial intelligence applications that computes with symbolic expressions rather than numbers. Such garbage collection programs were also used with the language SNOBOL (String Oriented Symbolic Language), an early list-processing language developed in the early 1960s. More recently, it has appeared in embedded languages such as PostScript and object-oriented languages such as Java.
The third definition for garbage centers on a widely used acronym within the computer industry GIGO (garbage in, garbage out). That admonition warns all computer users that, no matter how advanced the machine, inputting faulty or substandard information will only result in more problematic data. Another interpretation of the term is garbage in, gospel out, warning users against placing too much faith in computers that may be handling faulty data.
write error:
An error that occurs during the transfer of data.
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